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Acandi (from Kawi caṇḍi,[1]pronounced[tʃandi]ⓘ) is aHindu orBuddhist temple inIndonesia, mostly built during theZaman Hindu-Buddha or "Hindu-Buddhist period" between circa the 4th and 15th centuries.[2]
TheKamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia defines acandi as an ancient stone building used for worship, or for storing the ashes of crematedHindu orBuddhist kings and priests.[3]Indonesian archaeologists describecandis as sacred structures of Hindu and Buddhist heritage, used for religious rituals and ceremonies in Indonesia.[4] However, ancient secular structures such as gates, urban ruins, pools and bathing places are often calledcandi too, while a shrine that specifically serves as a tomb is called acungkup.[2]
In HinduBalinese architecture, the termcandi refers to a stone or brick structure of single-celledshrine with portico, entrance and stairs, topped with pyramidal roof and located within apura. It is often modeled afterEast Javanese temples, and functions as a shrine to a certain deity. To theBalinese, acandi is not necessarily ancient, sincecandis continue to be (re-)built within these puras, such as the reconstructed temple inAlas Purwo,Banyuwangi.[5]
In contemporaryIndonesian Buddhist perspective,candi also refers to a shrine, either ancient or new. Several contemporaryviharas in Indonesia for example, contain the actual-size replica or reconstruction of famous Buddhist temples, such as the replica ofPawon[6] andPlaosan'sperwara (ancillary) temples. InBuddhism, the role of acandi as a shrine is sometimes interchangeable with astupa, a domed structure to store Buddhist relics or the ashes of cremated Buddhist priests, patrons or benefactors.Borobudur,Muara Takus andBatujaya for example are actually elaborate stupas.
In modernIndonesian language, the termcandi can be translated as "temple" or similar structure, especially ofHindu andBuddhist faiths. Thus temples ofCambodia (such as theAngkor Wat),Champa (Central and SouthernVietnam),Thailand,Laos,Myanmar andIndia are also calledcandi in Indonesian.
Candi refers to a structure based on theIndian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower above it, and a portico.[8] The termCandi is given as a prefix to the many temple-mountains inIndonesia, built as a representation of the CosmicMount Meru, an epitome of the universe. However, the term also applied to many non-religious structures dated from the same period, such asgapura (gates), petirtaan (pools) and some of habitation complexes. Examples of non-temple candis are the Bajang Ratu and Wringin Lawang gates ofMajapahit. The "Candi Tikus bathing pool" inTrowulan and Jalatunda inMount Penanggungan slopes, as well as the remnants of non-religious habitation and urban structures such asRatu Boko and some of Trowulan city ruins, are also consideredcandi.
In ancientJava, a temple was probably originally calledprāsāda (Sanskrit:प्रासाद), as evidence in theManjusrigrha inscription (dated from 792 CE), that mentioned "Prasada Vajrasana Manjusrigrha" to refer to theSewu temple.[9]: 89 This term is in par with Cambodian and Thai termprasat which refer to the towering structure of a temple.
"Between circa the 7th and 15th centuries, hundred of religious structures were constructed of brick and stone inJava,Sumatra andBali. These are calledcandi. The term refers to other pre-Islamic structures including gateways and even bathing places, but its principal manifestation is the religious shrine."
FromHindu perspective, the termcandi itself is believed was derived fromCandika, one of the manifestations of the goddessDurga as the goddess of death.[11] This suggests that in ancientIndonesia thecandi hadmortuary functions as well as connections with the afterlife. The association of the namecandi,candika ordurga with Hindu-Buddhist temples is unknown inIndia and other parts ofSoutheast Asia outside ofIndonesia, such asCambodia,Thailand, orBurma.
Another theory fromBuddhist perspective, suggested that the termcandi might be a localized form of thePali wordcedi (Sanskrit:caitya)—which related toThai wordchedi which refer to astupa, or it might be related to theBodhisattva Candī (also known asCundī orCandā).[12]
Historians suggest that the temples of ancientJava were also used to store the ashes of cremated deceased kings or royalty. This is in line with Buddhist concept ofstupas as structures to store Buddhist relics, including the ashes and remains of holy Buddhist priests or the Buddhist king, patrons of Buddhism. The statue of god stored inside thegarbhagriha (main chamber) of the temple is often modeled after the deceased king and considered to be the deified person of the king portrayed asVishnu orShiva according to the concept ofdevaraja. The example is the statue of kingAirlangga from Belahan temple inPasuruan portrayed as Vishnu ridingGaruda.
The candi architecture follows the typicalHindu architecture traditions based onVastu Shastra. The temple layout, especially inCentral Java period, incorporatedmandala temple plan arrangements and also the typical high towering spires ofHindu temples. Thecandi was designed to mimicMeru, the holy mountain the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model ofHindu universe according toHindu cosmology and the layers ofLoka.[13]
The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanning from the less holy to the holiest realms. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognizes the concept of arranging elements in three parts. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follows the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body (center), and head (roof). The three zones are arranged according to a sacred hierarchy. Each of these Hindu and Buddhist concepts have their own terms, but the concept's essentials are identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically) consists of three zones:[14]
Soekmono, anIndonesian archaeologist, has classified thecandi styles into two main groups: acentral Java style, which predominantly date from before 1000 CE, and aneastern Java style, which date from after 1000 CE. He groups the temples ofSumatra andBali into theeastern Java style.[15]
| Parts of the temple | Central Java Style | Eastern Java Style |
|---|---|---|
| Shape of the structure | Tends to be bulky | Tends to be slender and tall |
| Roof | Clearly shows stepped roof sections, usually consist of three parts | The multiple parts of stepped sections formed a combined roof structure smoothly |
| Pinnacle | Stupa (Buddhist temples), Ratna or Vajra (Hindu temples) | Cube (mostly Hindu temples), sometimes Dagoba cylindrical structures (Buddhist temples) |
| Portal and niches adornment | Kala-Makara style; Kala head without lower jaw opening its mouth located on top of the portal, connected with double Makara on each side of the portal | Only Kala head sneering with the mouth complete with lower jaw located on top of the portal, Makara is absent |
| Relief | Projected rather high from the background, the images was done in naturalistic style | Projected rather flat from the background, the images was done in stylized style similar to Balinese wayang image |
| Layout and location of the main temple | Concentric mandala, symmetric, formal; with main temple located in the center of the complex surrounded by smallerperwara temples in regular rows | Linear, asymmetric, followed topography of the site; with main temple located in the back or furthermost from the entrance, often located in the highest ground of the complex,perwara temples is located in front of the main temple |
| Direction | Mostly faced east | Mostly faced west |
| Materials | Mostly andesite stone | Mostly red brick |
There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While thePenataran,Jawi,Jago,Kidal andSinghasari temples, for example, belong to the eastern Java group, they use andesite stone similar to theCentral Java temple material. Temple ruins inTrowulan, such as Brahu, Jabung and Pari temples use red brick. Also the Prambanan temple is tall and slender similar to the east Java style, yet the roof design is Central Javan in style. The location also do not always correlate with the temple styles, for example Candi Badut is located inMalang,East Java, yet the period and style belongs to older 8th century central Javanese style.
The earlier northern central Java complexes, such as theDieng temples, are smaller and contain only several temples which exhibit simpler carving, whereas the later southern complexes, such asSewu temple, are grander, with a richer elaboration of carving, and concentric layout of the temple complex.
TheMajapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian megalithic design elements, such stepped pyramids (punden berundak). These design cues are seen in theSukuh andCetho temples inMount Lawu in eastern Central Java, and in stepped sanctuary structures on theMount Penanggungan slopes that are similar to meso-American stepped pyramids.
Most of well-preservedcandi in Indonesia are made fromandesite stone. This is mainly owed to the stone's durability, compared to bricks, against tropical weathers and torrential rains. Nevertheless, certain periods, especially the Majapahit era, saw the extensive use ofred brick as temple and building materials. The materials commonly used in temple construction in Indonesia are:
The candis of ancient Java are notable with the application of kala-makara as both decorative and symbolic elements of the temple architecture.Kala is the giant symbolizingtime, by making kala's head as temple portals element, it symbolizes that time consumes everything. Kala is also a protective figure, with fierce giant face it scares away malevolent spirits.Makara is a mythical sea monster, the vahana of sea-godVaruna. It has been depicted typically as half mammal and half fish. In many temples the depiction is in the form of half fish or seal with the head of anelephant. It is also shown with head and jaws of acrocodile, an elephant trunk, the tusks and ears of a wildboar, the darting eyes of amonkey, the scales and the flexible body of afish, and the swirling tailing feathers of apeacock. Both kala and makara are applied as the protective figures of the temple's entrance.
Kala is the giant head, often takes place on top of the entrance with makaras projected on either sides of kala's head, flanking the portal or projecting on the top corner as antefixes. The kala-makara theme also can be found on stair railings on either sides. On the upper part of stairs, the mouth of kala's head projecting makara downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras flanking the lower level of stairs, with its curved bodies forming the stair's railings. Other than makaras, kala's head might also project its tongue as stair's railings. These types of stair-decorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan. Makara's trunks are often describes as handlinggold ornaments or spoutingjewels, while in its mouth often projectedGana dwarf figures or animals such aslions orparrots.
In ancient Javanesecandi, the linga-yoni symbolism was only found in Hindu temples, more precisely those of Shivaist faith. Therefore, they are absent in Buddhist temples. Thelinga is aphallic post or cylinder symbolic of the godShiva and of creative power. Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic ofBrahma, an octagonal middle section symbolic ofVishnu, and a round tip symbolic of Shiva. The lingas that survive from the Javanese classical period are generally made of polished stone of this shape.
Lingas are implanted in a flat square base with a hole in it, called ayoni, symbolic of the womb and also representsParvati, Shiva's consort. A yoni usually has a kind of spout, usually decorated withnāga, to help channeled and collects the liquids poured upon linga-yoni during Hindu ritual. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and ritual. Oldest remains of linga-yoni can be found inDieng temples from earlier period circa 7th century. Originally each temples might have a complete pair of linga-yoni unity. However, most of the times, the linga is missing.
In the tradition of Javanese kingship, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself or his dynasty, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with Shiva. The example is the linga-yoni ofGunung Wukir temple, according toCanggal inscription is connected to KingSanjaya from theMataram kingdom, in 654Saka (732 CE).[18] Other temples that contains complete linga-yoni includeSambisari andIjo temples. Eastern Javanese temples that contains linga-yoni arePanataran andJawi temple, although the linga is missing.
The walls ofcandi often displayedbas-reliefs, either serves as decorative elements as well as to convey religious symbolic meanings; through describing narrative bas-reliefs. The most exquisite of the temple bas-reliefs can be found in Borobudur and Prambanan temples. The first four terrace of Borobudur walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world.[19] The Buddhist scriptures describes as bas-reliefs in Borobudur such asKarmavibhangga (the law of karma),Lalitavistara (the birth of Buddha),Jataka,Avadana andGandavyuha. While inPrambanan the Hindu scriptures is describes in its bas-relief panels; theRamayana andBhagavata Purana (popularly known asKrishnayana).
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and alsonative vernacular architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such asasuras, gods,boddhisattvas,kinnaras,gandharvas andapsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th-centuryMaritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger ship isBorobudur Ship.
There are significant distinction of bas-reliefs' style and aesthetics between the Central Javanese period (prior of 1000 CE) and East Javanese period (after 1000 CE). The earlier Central Javanese style, as observable in Borobudur and Prambanan, are more exquisite and naturalistic in style. The reliefs is projected rather high from the background, the images was done in naturalistic style with proper ideal body proportion. On the other hand, the bas-reliefs of Eastern Javanese style is projected rather flat from the background, the images was done in stiffer pose and stylized style, similar to currently Balinese wayang images. The East Javanese style is currently preserved in Balinese art, style and aesthetics in temple bas-reliefs, alsowayang shadow puppet imagery, as well as theKamasanpainting.
The images of coupledKinnara andKinnari can be found inBorobudur,Mendut,Pawon, Sewu, Sari, andPrambanan temples. Usually, they are depicted as birds with human heads, or humans with lower limbs of birds. The pair ofKinnara andKinnari usually is depicted guardingKalpataru (Kalpavriksha), the tree of life, and sometimes guarding a jar of treasure. There are bas-relief in Borobudur depicting the story of the famouskinnari,Manohara.
The lower outer wall of Prambanan temples were adorned with row of small niche containing image ofsimha (lion) flanked by two panels depicting bountiful kalpataru (kalpavriksha) tree. These wish-fulfilling sacred trees according to Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, is flanked on either side bykinnaras or animals, such as pairs of birds, deer, sheep, monkeys, horses, elephants etc. The pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees is typical in Prambanan temple compound, thus it is called as "Prambanan panel".
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In Buddhist temples, the panels of bas-reliefs usually adorned with exquisite images of male figure ofBodhisattvas and female figure ofTaras, along withGandarvas heavenly musicians, and sometimes the flock ofGana dwarfs. These are the deities and divinities in Buddhist beliefs, which resides in theTushita heaven in Buddhism cosmology.
Bodhisattvas are usually depicted as handsome man with peaceful and serene facial expression, adorned with luxurious jewelry akin to a king or a deity. While the Taras are his female counterparts, figures of beautiful celestial maidens. Both figures are depicted gracefully, usually holding various kinds of lotus (redpadma, blueutpala, or whitekumuda), monk staff (khakkhara) or fly whisk (chamara), and standing intribhanga pose. The notable images ofboddhisattvas could be found adorning the outer walls ofPlaosan, Sari, Kalasan, Sewu, Pawon and of course Borobudur temple.
In Hindu temples, the celestial couple; maleDevatas and femaleApsaras are usually found adorns the panels of temple's walls. They are the Hindu counterpart of BuddhistBodhisattva-Tara celestial beings. On the other side of narrative panels in Prambanan, the temple wall along the gallery were adorned with the statues and reliefs ofdevatas andbrahmin sages. The figure oflokapalas, the celestial guardians of directions can be found in Shiva temple. The Brahmin sage editors of veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in Vishnu temple the figures of a male deitiesdevatas flanked by twoapsaras. The depiction of celestial beings of lesser gods and goddesses—devatas andapsaras, describes the Hindu concept of sacred realm ofSvargaloka. This is corresponds to the concept of the towering Hindu temple as the epitome ofMount Meru in Hindu cosmology.
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Most of larger temple compound in ancient Java were guarded by a pair ofdvarapala statues, as gate guardians. The twin giants usually placed flanked the entrance in front of the temple, or in four cardinal points. Dvarapala took form of two fierce giants or demons that ward off evil and malevolent spirits from entering the sacred temple compounds. In Central Javanese art, dvarapala is mostly portrayed as a stout and rather chubby giant, with fierce face of glaring round goggle eyes, protruding fangs, curly hairs and moustaches, with fat and round belly. The giant usually depicted as holdinggada and sometimes knives as weapon.
In East Javanese art and Balinese version however, the dvarapala usually depicted rather well-built and muscular, with a fine example taken from Adan-adan site near Kediri.[20] The exception is a gigantic dvarapala ofSinghasari near Malang, East Java that measures 3.7 metres (12 ft) tall. The most notable dvarapala statues are those of candiSewu, each pair guarding four cardinal points of the grand temple complex, making them a total eight large dvarapala statues in perfect condition. The dvarapalas of Sewu temple has become the prototype ofGupolo guardian in later Javanese art, copied as guardians in Javanesekeratons of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Another fine example is two pairs of dvarapala guarding the twin temples ofPlaosan.
The statues of a pair oflions (Sanskrit:Siṁha, Indonesian and Javanese:Singa) flanking the portal, are often placed as the guardians ofcandi entrance. Lions were never native to Southeast Asia inrecorded history. As the result, the depiction of lions in ancient Southeast Asian art, especially in ancientJava andCambodia, is far from the naturalistic style as depicted in Greek or Persian art counterparts, since the depictions were all based on perception and imagination. The cultural depictions and the reverence of lions as the noble and powerful beasts in Southeast Asia was influenced by Indian culture especially throughBuddhist symbolism.
Statues of a pair of lions often founds in temples in Southeast Asia as the gate guardians. InBorobudur Buddhist monumentCentral Java,Indonesia, andesite stone statues of lions guard four main entrances of Borobudur. The thrones ofBuddha andBoddhisattva found inKalasan andMendut Buddhist temples of ancient Java depicted elephants, lions, andmakara. The statue of winged lion also found inPenataran templeEast Java.
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The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from its pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shapedstupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those ofBorobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace ofArupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bell-shaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika)[21] sits on top of the dome serves as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).[22]
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or rhombus. Statues of theBuddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as astupa, instead of a temple. Astupa is intended as ashrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.
Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical, completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams (Javanese:pelipit). This form is known askeben pinnacle or the form ofBarringtonia asiatica fruit.[23] It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle isSambisari and Ijo temple.
In Prambanan, the stylizedvajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved inBalinese Hindu temples of later period where the multi-tieredmeru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture, the false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on top of Buddhist counterparts.
The high concentration of candi can be found especially dense inSleman Regency inYogyakarta, alsoMagelang andKlaten inCentral Java; which corresponds to the historical region ofKedu Plain (Progo River valley, Temanggung-Magelang-Muntilan area) andKewu Plain (Opak River valley, around Prambanan), the cradle of Javanese civilization. Other important sites with notable temple compounds includesMalang,Blitar andTrowulan areas inEast Java.West Java also contains a small number of temples such as Batujaya and Cangkuang. Outside of Java, the candi type of temple can be found inBali,Sumatra, and SouthernKalimantan, although they are quite scarce. In Sumatra, two exceptional sites are notable for its temple density; theMuaro Jambi Temple Compounds in Jambi andPadang Lawas or Bahal complex in North Sumatra.
The candis might be built on plain or uneven terrain.Prambanan andSewu temples for example, are built on even flat low-lying terrain, while the temples ofGedong Songo andIjo are built on hill terraces on higher grounds or mountain slopes. Borobudur on the other hand is built upon a bedrock hill. The position, orientation and spatial organization of the temples within the landscape, and also their architectural designs, were determined by socio-cultural, religious and economic factors of the people, polity or the civilization that built and support them.[24]
The Hindu temple compound located inDieng Plateau, nearWonosobo, Central Java. Eight small Hindu temples from the 7th and 8th centuries, the oldest in Central Java. Surrounded by craters of boiling mud, colored lakes, caves, sulphur outlets, hot water sources and underground channels. The temples are:
TheKedu Plain lies to the north west ofYogyakarta and west ofGunung Merapi and south west ofMagelang, inCentral Java.
East ofYogyakarta, Central Java.
NearSurakarta, Central Java.
Malang, East Java.
Mojokerto Regency, East Java.
Indonesian candi, Hindu-Buddhist temples, dated from the oldest circa 2nd century, to latest, circa 15th century.
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