Canadians are people identified with the country ofCanada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their beingCanadian.
Canada is a multilingual andmulticultural society home to people of groups of many different ethnic, religious, and national origins, with the majority of the population made up ofOld Worldimmigrants and their descendants. Following the initial period ofFrench and then the much largerBritish colonization, different waves (or peaks) of immigration and settlement of non-indigenous peoples took place over the course of nearly two centuries and continue today. Elements of Indigenous, French, British, and more recent immigrant customs, languages, and religions have combined to form theculture of Canada, and thus aCanadian identity andCanadian values. Canada has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic, geographic, and economic neighbour—the United States.
Canadian independence from theUnited Kingdom grew gradually over the course of many years following the formation of theCanadian Confederation in 1867. TheFirst andSecond World Wars, in particular, gave rise to a desire among Canadians to have their country recognized as a fully-fledged, sovereign state, with a distinct citizenship. Legislative independence was established with the passage of theStatute of Westminster, 1931, theCanadian Citizenship Act, 1946, took effect on January 1, 1947, and full sovereignty was achieved with thepatriation of the constitution in 1982. Canada'snationality law closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom. Legislation since the mid-20th century represents Canadians' commitment tomultilateralism andsocioeconomic development. Nearly nine in ten (87%) Canadians were proud to identify as Canadian, with over half (61%) expressing they were very proud.[12]
Term
The wordCanadian originally applied, in its French form,Canadien, to the colonists residing in the northern part ofNew France[13]— inQuebec, andOntario—during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. The French colonists in Maritime Canada (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island), were known asAcadians.
WhenPrince Edward (a son of KingGeorge III) addressed, in English and French, a group of rioters at a poll inCharlesbourg,Lower Canada (today Quebec), during the election of theLegislative Assembly in June 1792,[14] he stated, "I urge you to unanimity and concord. Let me hear no more of the odious distinction of English and French. You are all His Britannic Majesty's beloved Canadian subjects."[15] It was the first-known use of the termCanadian to mean bothFrench andEnglish settlers inthe Canadas.[14][16]
As of 2010, Canadians make up 0.5% of theworld's total population,[17] having relied upon immigration for population growth and social development.[18] Approximately 41% of current Canadians are first- or second-generation immigrants,[19] and 20% of Canadian residents in the 2000s were not born in the country.[20]Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, nearly one-half of Canadians above the age of 15 will beforeign-born or have one foreign-born parent.[21]Indigenous peoples, according to the2016 Canadian census, numbered at 1,673,780 or 4.9% of the country's 35,151,728 population.[22]
While the first contact with Europeans andIndigenous peoples in Canada had occurred a century or more before, the first group of permanent settlers were theFrench, who founded theNew France settlements, in present-dayQuebec andOntario; andAcadia, in present-dayNova Scotia andNew Brunswick, during the early part of the 17th century.[23][24]
Thepopulation of Canada has consistently risen, doubling approximately every 40 years, since the establishment of theCanadian Confederation in 1867.[41] In the mid-to-late 19th century, Canada had a policy of assistingimmigrants from Europe, including an estimated 100,000 unwanted "Home Children" from Britain.[42]Block settlement communities were established throughoutWestern Canada between the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Some were planned and others were spontaneously created by the settlers themselves.[43] Canada received mainly European immigrants, predominantlyItalians, Germans,Scandinavians,Dutch,Poles, andUkrainians.[44]Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as the continuous journey regulation andChinese Immigration Act, 1923) that had favoured British and other European immigrants were amended in the 1960s, opening the doors to immigrants from all parts of the world.[45] While the 1950s had still seen high levels of immigration by Europeans, by the 1970s immigrants were increasingly Chinese, Indian,Vietnamese,Jamaican, andHaitian.[46] During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Canada received manyAmericanVietnam War draft dissenters.[47] Throughout the late 1980s and 1990s, Canada's growing Pacific trade brought with it a large influx ofSouth Asians, who tended to settle inBritish Columbia.[48] Immigrants of all backgrounds tend to settle in themajor urban centres.[49][50] The Canadian public, as well as the major political parties, are tolerant of immigrants.[51]
Map of theCanadian diaspora in the world (might include people with Canadian citizenship and children of Canadians).[8]
Canada
+ 100,000
+ 10,000
+ 1,000
Canadian citizenship is typically obtained by birth in Canada or by birth or adoption abroad when at least one biological parent or adoptive parent is a Canadian citizen who was born in Canada or naturalized in Canada (and did not receive citizenship by being born outside of Canada to a Canadian citizen).[54] It can also be granted to apermanent resident who lives in Canada for three out of four years and meets specific requirements.[55] Canadaestablished its own nationality law in 1946, with the enactment of theCanadian Citizenship Act which took effect on January 1, 1947.[56] TheImmigration and Refugee Protection Act was passed by theParliament of Canada in 2001 as Bill C-11, which replaced theImmigration Act, 1976 as the primary federal legislation regulating immigration.[57] Prior to the conferring of legal status on Canadian citizenship, Canada's naturalization laws consisted of a multitude of Acts beginning with theImmigration Act of 1910.[58]
According toCitizenship and Immigration Canada, there are three main classifications for immigrants:family class (persons closely related to Canadian residents),economic class (admitted on the basis of a point system that accounts for age, health and labour-market skills required for cost effectively inducting the immigrants into Canada's labour market) andrefugee class (those seeking protection by applying to remain in the country by way of theCanadian immigration and refugee law).[59] In 2008, there were 65,567 immigrants in the family class, 21,860 refugees, and 149,072 economic immigrants amongst the 247,243 total immigrants to the country.[19] Canada resettles over one in 10 of the world'srefugees[60] and has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world.[61]
As of a 2010 report by theAsia Pacific Foundation of Canada, there were 2.8 millionCanadian citizens abroad.[62] This represents about 8% of the total Canadian population. Of those living abroad, the United States, Hong Kong, the United Kingdom, Taiwan, China, Lebanon, United Arab Emirates, and Australia have the largest Canadian diaspora. Canadians in the United States constitute the greatest single expatriate community at over 1 million in 2009, representing 35.8% of all Canadians abroad.[63] Under currentCanadian law, Canada does not restrictdual citizenship, butPassport Canada encourages its citizens to travel abroad on theirCanadian passport so that they can access Canadianconsular services.[64]
Ethnic ancestry
A map showing the largest ethnic or cultural origins in Canada by census division in 2021.
The country's ten largest self-reported specific ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 wereCanadian[c] (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed byEnglish (14.7 percent),Irish (12.1 percent),Scottish (12.1 percent),French (11.0 percent),German (8.1 percent),Indian (5.1 percent),[e]Chinese (4.7 percent),Italian (4.3 percent), andUkrainian (3.5 percent).[69][65]
Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021 approximately 25.4 million reported being "white", representing 69.8 percent of the population.[2][70][71] The indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.[72] One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenousvisible minority,[71][f] the largest of which in 2021 wereSouth Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent) andBlack (1.5 million; 4.3 percent).[70]
Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.[74] In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) were members of visible minority groups.[75] The 2021 Census indicated that 8.3 million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population reported themselves as being or having been alanded immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the1921 Census previous record of 22.3 percent.[76] In 2021 India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.[77]
A 1911 political cartoon on Canada's bicultural identity showing a flag combining symbols of Britain, France and Canada; titled "The next favor. 'A flag to suit the minority.'"
Canadian culture has historically been influenced byEuropean culture and traditions, especiallyBritish andFrench, and by its ownindigenous cultures. Most of Canada's territory was inhabited and developed later than other European colonies in the Americas, with the result that themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders were important in the early development of theCanadian identity.[87] First Nations played a critical part in the development ofEuropean colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting exploration of the continent during theNorth American fur trade.[88] The British conquest of New France in the mid-1700s brought a largeFrancophone population underBritish Imperial rule, creating a need for compromise and accommodation.[89] The new British rulers left alone much of the religious, political, and social culture of the French-speakinghabitants, guaranteeing through theQuebec Act of 1774 the right of theCanadiens to practise the Catholic faith and to useFrench civil law (nowQuebec law).[90]
TheConstitution Act, 1867 was designed to meet the growing calls of Canadians for autonomy from British rule, while avoiding the overly strong decentralization that contributed to theCivil War in the United States.[91] The compromises made by theFathers of Confederation set Canadians on a path tobilingualism, and this in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity.[92][93]
TheCanadian Armed Forces and overall civilian participation in theFirst World War andSecond World War helped to fosterCanadian nationalism,[94][95] however, in 1917 and 1944,conscription crisis' highlighted the considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones.[96] As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority.[97] With the gradual loosening of political ties to the United Kingdom and the modernization of Canadian immigration policies, 20th-century immigrants withAfrican, Caribbean andAsian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.[98] The multiple-origins immigration pattern continues today, with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants from non-British or non-French backgrounds.[99]
Canadian identity refers to the unique culture, characteristics and condition of being Canadian, as well as the many symbols and expressions that setCanada and Canadians apart from other peoples and cultures of the world. Changes in demographics, history, and social interactions have led to alterations in the Canadian identity over time. This identity is not fixed; asCanadian values evolve they impact Canadians' social integration, civic engagement, and connections with one another.[111] In Quebec, identity is strong and there is aFrench Canadian culture that is distinct fromEnglish Canadian and Indigenous identities.[112] Nonetheless, as a whole,Canadian multiculturalism, is in theory acultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures and diverse areas includingethnic enclaves,[113] with nearly nine in ten (87%) Canadians being proud to identify as Canadian, with over half (61%) expressing they were very proud.[114]
Nearly nine in ten (87%) Canadians were proud to identify as Canadian, with over half (61%) expressing they were very proud. The highest pride levels were forCanadian history (70%), thearmed forces (64%), thehealth care system (64%), and theConstitution (63%). However, pride in Canada’s political influence was lower at 46%. Outside Quebec, pride ranged from 91% in British Columbia to 94% in Prince Edward Island, while 70% of Quebec residents felt proud. Seniors and women showed the most pride, especially among first- and second-generation immigrants, who valued both Canadian identity and achievements.[12]
Freedom of religion sculpture by Marlene Hilton Moore at the McMurtry Gardens of Justice in Toronto[115]
Religion in Canada encompasses a wide range of beliefs and customs that historically has been dominated byChristianity.[116][117] Theconstitution of Canada refers to 'God'; however Canada has no official church and the government is officially committed toreligious pluralism.[118]Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.[119] Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1960s.[117] After having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[120] Canada has become apost-Christian state.[121][122][123] Although the majority of Canadians considerreligion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[124] they still believe in God.[125] The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.[126]
Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.[127] Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, northern climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.[128] The use of themaple leaf as a symbol dates to the early 18th century in New France.[129] The maple leaf is depicted on Canada'scurrent andprevious flags and on thearms of Canada.[130] Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", reflects the colours of the maple leaf through the seasons—green in thespring, gold in the earlyautumn, red at the firstfrost, and brown after falling.[131] The arms of Canada are closely modelled afterthose of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[132]
Approximately 98% of Canadians can speak English or French (2006)[133]
English – 56.9%
English and French (Bilingual) – 16.1%
French – 21.3%
Sparsely populated area (<0.4 km2 (0.15 sq mi) per person)
A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, withEnglish andFrench (theofficial languages) being themother tongues of approximately 56% and 21% of Canadians, respectively.[134] As of the 2016 Census, just over 7.3 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (1,227,680 first-language speakers),Punjabi (501,680), Spanish (458,850),Tagalog (431,385), Arabic (419,895), German (384,040), and Italian (375,645).[134] Less than one percent of Canadians (just over 250,000 individuals) can speak anindigenous language. About half this number (129,865) reported using an indigenous language on a daily basis.[135] Additionally, Canadians speak severalsign languages; the number of speakers is unknown of the most spoken ones,American Sign Language (ASL) andQuebec Sign Language (LSQ),[136] as it is ofMaritime Sign Language andPlains Sign Talk.[137] There are only 47 speakers of the Inuit sign languageInuktitut.[138]
English and French are recognized by theConstitution of Canada as official languages.[139] All federal government laws are thus enacted in both English and French, with government services available in both languages.[139] Two of Canada's territories give official status to indigenous languages. InNunavut,Inuktitut, andInuinnaqtun are official languages, alongside the national languages of English and French, and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in territorial government.[140] In theNorthwest Territories, theOfficial Languages Act declares that there are eleven different languages:Chipewyan,Cree, English, French,Gwich'in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut,Inuvialuktun,North Slavey,South Slavey, andTłįchǫ.[141]Multicultural media are widely accessible across the country and offer specialty television channels, newspapers, and other publications in many minority languages.[142]
In Canada, as elsewhere in the world ofEuropean colonies, the frontier of European exploration and settlement tended to be a linguistically diverse and fluid place, as cultures using different languages met and interacted. The need for a common means of communication between the indigenous inhabitants and new arrivals for the purposes of trade, and (in some cases) intermarriage, led to the development ofmixed languages.[143] Languages likeMichif,Chinook Jargon, andBungi creole tended to be highly localized and were often spoken by only a small number of individuals who were frequently capable of speaking another language.[144]Plains Sign Talk—which functioned originally as a trade language used to communicate internationally and across linguistic borders—reached across Canada, the United States, and into Mexico.[145]
^Officially, the People's Republic of China. ExcludesHong Kong,Macau, andTaiwan (listed separately).
^abAll citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined byCanada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.[66] The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude of reasons such as generational distance from ancestral lineage.[67][68]
^The 2021 census on ethnic or cultural origins, Statistics Canada states: "Given the fluid nature of this concept and the changes made to this question, 2021 Census data on ethnic or cultural origins are not comparable to data from previous censuses and should not be used to measure the growth or decline of the various groups associated with these origins".[4]
^ Statistic includes all persons with ethnic or cultural origin responses with ancestry to the nation of India, including "Anglo-Indian" (3,340), "Bengali" (26,675), "Goan" (9,700), "Gujarati" (36,970), "Indian" (1,347,715), "Jatt" (22,785), "Kashmiri" (6,165), "Maharashtrian" (4,125), "Malayali" (12,490), "Punjabi" (279,950), "Tamil" (102,170), and "Telugu" (6,670)".[69]
^Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".[73]
^abGovernment of Canada, Statistics Canada (October 26, 2022)."The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity".www12.statcan.gc.ca. RetrievedOctober 26, 2022.In 2021, just over 25 million people reported being White in the census, representing close to 70% of the total Canadian population. The vast majority reported being White only, while 2.4% also reported one or more other racialized groups.
^"American Civil War and Canada".The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Foundation. 2003.Archived from the original on November 17, 2015. RetrievedNovember 30, 2006.
^Douglas Baer, Edward Grabb, and William Johnston, "National character, regional culture, and the values of Canadians and Americans."Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie 30.1 (1993): 13-36.
^"Highlights".Statistics Canada. October 1, 2015. RetrievedMarch 2, 2025.
^"Exploring Canadian values"(PDF).nanosresearch.com. Values Survey Summary - Survey by Nanos Research, October 2016. July 28, 2017.Archived(PDF) from the original on April 5, 2017. RetrievedJanuary 21, 2025.
Shizha, Edward (2018). "Ethnic Enclaves in Canada: Opportunities and Challenges of Residing Within".Living beyond the borders: essays on global immigrants and refugees.Peter Lang. pp. 162–179.ISBN978-1-4331-4868-2.
Blackwell, John D. (2005)."Culture High and Low". International Council for Canadian Studies World Wide Web Service. Archived fromthe original on August 21, 2014. RetrievedMarch 15, 2006.
Wayland, Shara V. (1997). "Immigration, Multiculturalism and National Identity in Canada".International Journal on Minority and Group Rights.5 (1). Dept of Political Science, U Toronto:33–58.doi:10.1163/15718119720907408.
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