Not all Muslim states have had caliphates. TheSunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a caliph should be elected by Muslims or their representatives.[7]Shia Muslims, however, believe a caliph should be animam chosen by God from theAhl al-Bayt (the 'Household of the Prophet'). Some caliphates in history have been led by Shia Muslims, like theFatimid Caliphate (909–1171). From the late 20th century towards the early 21st century, in the wake of theinvasion of Afghanistan by the USSR, thewar on terror and theArab Spring, variousIslamist groups have claimed the caliphate, although these claims have usually been widely rejected among Muslims.
Etymology
Before the advent of Islam, Arabian monarchs traditionally used the titlemalik 'king', or another from the sameSemitic root.[4] The termcaliph (/ˈkeɪlɪf,ˈkælɪf/[8]) derives from theArabic wordkhalīfah (خليفة,pronunciationⓘ), meaning 'successor', 'steward', or 'deputy', and has traditionally been considered a shortening ofKhalīfah rasūl Allāh 'successor of the messenger of God'. However, studies of pre-Islamic texts suggest that the original meaning of the phrase was 'successor selected by God'.[4]
In the immediate aftermath of the death of Muhammad, a gathering of theAnsar (natives ofMedina) took place in thesaqifa (courtyard) of theBanu Sa'ida clan.[9] The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of theMuslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of theMuhajirun (migrants fromMecca), though this has later become the subject of debate.[10]
Nevertheless,Abu Bakr andUmar, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned of a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, theQuraysh, would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion,Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah, by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue among themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men.[11]
Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of caliph) as a result ofSaqifah, though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them beingAli ibn Abi Talib, initially refused to acknowledge his authority.[14] Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad.[15] The theologianIbrahim al-Nakha'i stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely.[16] Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance, resulting inan altercation which may have involved violence.[17] However, after six months, the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty.[18]
Rashidun Caliphate at its greatest extent under Uthman
Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed. Umar, the second caliph, was killed by a Persian slave calledAbu Lu'lu'a Firuz. His successor, Uthman, was elected by a council of electors (majlis). Uthman was killed by members of a disaffected group.Ali then took control but was not universally accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt and later by some of his own guard. He faced two major rebellions and was assassinated byAbd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam, aKhawarij. Ali's tumultuous rule lasted only five years. This period is known as theFitna, or the first Islamic civil war. The followers of Ali later became the Shi'a ("shiaat Ali", partisans of Ali.[19]) minority sect of Islam and reject the legitimacy of the first three caliphs. The followers of all four Rāshidun Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali) became the majority Sunni sect.
Under the Rāshidun, each region (Sultanate,Wilayah, orEmirate) of the caliphate had its own governor (Sultan,Wāli orEmir).Muāwiyah, a relative of Uthman and governor (wali) ofSyria, succeeded Ali as caliph. Muāwiyah transformed the caliphate into ahereditary office, thus founding the Umayyaddynasty.
In areas which were previously underSasanian Empire orByzantine rule, the caliphs lowered taxes, provided greater local autonomy (to their delegated governors), greater religious freedom for Jews and some indigenous Christians, and brought peace to peoples demoralised and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that had resulted from the decades ofByzantine–Persian warfare.[20]
Ali's caliphate, Hasan and the rise of the Umayyads
Ali's reign was plagued by turmoil and internal strife. The Persians, taking advantage of this, infiltrated the two armies and attacked the other army causing chaos and internal hatred between thecompanions at theBattle of Siffin. The battle lasted several months, resulting in a stalemate. To avoid further bloodshed, Ali agreed to negotiate with Mu'awiyah. This caused a faction of approximately 4,000 people, who would come to be known as theKharijites, to abandon the fight. After defeating the Kharijites at theBattle of Nahrawan, Ali was later assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam. Ali's sonHasan was elected as the next caliph, but abdicated in favour of Mu'awiyah a few months later to avoid any conflict within the Muslims. Mu'awiyah became the sixth caliph, establishing the Umayyad dynasty,[21] named after the great-grandfather of Uthman and Mu'awiyah,Umayya ibn Abd Shams.[22]
Beginning with the Umayyads, the title of the caliph became hereditary.[23] Under the Umayyads, the caliphate grew rapidly in territory, incorporating theCaucasus,Transoxiana,Sindh, theMaghreb and most of theIberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim world.[24] At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered approximately 5 million square miles (approximately 13 million square kilometres), making it larger than the earlierRoman Empire or contemporaryTang China.[25]
Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed a number of times during the Umayyad reign.[citation needed] Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. However, for a variety of reasons, including that they were not elected byShura and suggestions of impious behaviour, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within the Muslim community.[26] Some supported prominent early Muslims likeZubayr ibn al-Awwam; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, theBanu Hashim, or his own lineage, the descendants of Ali, should rule.[27]
There were multiple rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry betweenYaman and Qays).[28] At the command of Yazid son of Muawiya, an army led by Umar ibn Saad, a commander by the name of Shimr Ibn Thil-Jawshan killed Ali's sonHussein and his family at theBattle of Karbala in 680, solidifying theShia-Sunni split.[19] Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hashim and the supporters of the lineage of Ali united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, theShi‘at ‘Alī, "the Party of Ali", were again disappointed when theAbbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle,‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and not from Ali.[29]
In 750, the Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by another family ofMeccan origin, the Abbasids. Their time represented a scientific, cultural and religious flowering.[30] Islamic art and music also flourished significantly during their reign.[31] Their major city and capitalBaghdad began to flourish as a center of knowledge, culture and trade. This period of cultural fruition ended in 1258 with thesack of Baghdad by the Mongols underHulagu Khan. The Abbasid Caliphate had, however, lost its effective power outside Iraq already by c. 920.[32] By 945, the loss of power became official when theBuyids conquered Baghdad and all of Iraq. The empire fell apart and its parts were ruled for the next century by local dynasties.[29]
In the ninth century, theAbbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed predominantly of Turkic Cuman, Circassian and Georgian slave origin known as Mamluks.[33][34][better source needed] By 1250 the Mamluks came to power in Egypt. The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided the government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al-Mu'tasim's transfer of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the peoples they claimed to rule. In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew untilAr-Radi (934–941) was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions toMuhammad ibn Ra'iq.
In 1261, following theMongol conquest of Baghdad, the Mamluk rulers of Egypt tried to gain legitimacy for their rule by declaring the re-establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate inCairo.[citation needed] The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt had no political power; they continued to maintain the symbols of authority, but their sway was confined to religious matters.[citation needed] The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo wasAl-Mustansir (r. June–November 1261). The Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time ofAl-Mutawakkil III, who ruled as caliph from 1508 to 1516, then he was deposed briefly in 1516 by his predecessorAl-Mustamsik, but was restored again to the caliphate in 1517.[citation needed]
The Ottoman sultanSelim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Al-Mutawakkil III was captured together with his family and transported to Constantinople as a prisoner where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo.[35]
Parallel regional caliphates in the later Abbasid era
The Abbasid dynasty lost effective power over much of the Muslim realm by the first half of the tenth century.
The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule overAl-Andalus, reclaimed the title of caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031.
During the Umayyad dynasty, theIberian Peninsula was an integral province of the Umayyad Caliphate ruling fromDamascus. The Umayyads lost the position of caliph in Damascus in 750, andAbd al-Rahman I became Emir of Córdoba in 756 after six years in exile. Intent on regaining power, he defeated the existing Islamic rulers of the area who defied Umayyad rule and united various local fiefdoms into an emirate.
Rulers of the emirate used the title "emir" or "sultan" until the tenth century, whenAbd al-Rahman III was faced with the threat of invasion by the Fatimid Caliphate. To aid his fight against the invading Fatimids, who claimed the caliphate in opposition to the generally recognised Abbasid caliph of Baghdad,Al-Mu'tadid, Abd al-Rahman III claimed the title of caliph himself. This helped Abd al-Rahman III gain prestige with his subjects, and the title was retained after the Fatimids were repulsed. The rule of the caliphate is considered as the heyday of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula, before it fragmented into varioustaifas in the eleventh century. This period was characterised by a flourishing in technology, trade and culture; a number of the buildings ofal-Andalus were constructed in this period.
The Almohad movement was started byIbn Tumart among theMasmuda tribes of southern Morocco. The Almohads first established a Berber state inTinmel in theAtlas Mountains in roughly 1120.[38] The Almohads succeeded in overthrowing theAlmoravid dynasty in governing Morocco by 1147, whenAbd al-Mu'min (r. 1130–1163) conquered Marrakech and declared himself caliph. They then extended their power over all of theMaghreb by 1159. Al-Andalus followed the fate of Africa, and all Islamic Iberia was under Almohad rule by 1172.[39]
The Almohads continued to rule in northern Africa until the piecemeal loss of territory through the revolt of tribes and districts enabled the rise of their most effective enemies, theMarinid dynasty, in 1215.[citation needed] The last representative of the line,Idris al-Wathiq, was reduced to the possession ofMarrakesh, where he was murdered by a slave in 1269; the Marinids seized Marrakesh, ending the Almohad domination of the WesternMaghreb.
The Hafsids had been governors ofIfriqiya for the Almohads but declared their independence in 1229.[40] They claimed their descent fromRashidun caliphOmar. The second independent Hafsid rulerMuhammad I al-Mustansir (r. 1249–1277) declared himself caliph[41] and under his reign, the caliphate reached a peak.[40] After the fall of Baghdad,Marinid sultanAbu Yusuf Yaqub of Morocco,Sharif of MeccaAbu Numayy andEmir of GranadaMuhammad recognized the Hafsids in 1258, 1259 and 1264 respectively.[42][43] In the mid-14th century, Morocco invaded the caliphate. The Hafsids would return to great power withAbu Faris Abd al-Aziz II (r. 1394–1434) andAbu 'Amr 'Uthman (r. 1435–1488). Between 1535 and 1574, the caliphate was caught between the Ottoman and Spanish fronts and became a protectorate until it wasconquered by theOttoman Caliphate.[40]
Map of the Fatimid Caliphate at its largest extent in the early eleventh century
The Fatimid Caliphate was anIsma'ili Shi'i caliphate, originally based inTunisia, that extended its rule across theMediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the centre of its caliphate. At its height, in addition to Egypt, the caliphate included varying areas of theMaghreb, Sicily, theLevant and theHejaz.
The Fatimids established the Tunisian city ofMahdia and made it their capital city, before conquering Egypt and building the city ofCairo there in 969. Thereafter, Cairo became the capital of the caliphate, with Egypt becoming the political, cultural and religious centre of the state. Islam scholarLouis Massignon dubbed the fourth century AH /tenth century CE as the "Ismaili century in the history of Islam".[44]
The termFatimite is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate. The ruling elite of the state belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders of the dynasty wereIsmaili imams and had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims. They are also part of the chain of holders of the office of the caliphate, as recognised by some Muslims. Therefore, this constitutes a rare period in history in which the descendants of Ali (hence the name Fatimid, referring to Ali's wifeFatima) and the caliphate were united to any degree, excepting the final period of theRashidun Caliphate underAli himself.
The caliphate was reputed to exercise a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews,Maltese Christians andCopts.[45]
The ShiaUbayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah of theFatimid dynasty, who claimed descent from Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially controllingAlgeria,Tunisia andLibya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt andPalestine, before the Abbasid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171 and was overtaken bySaladin of theAyyubid dynasty.[46]
The caliphate was claimed by thesultans of the Ottoman Empire beginning withMurad I (reigned 1362 to 1389),[47] while recognising no authority on the part of the Abbasid caliphs of the Mamluk-ruled Cairo. Hence the seat of the caliphate moved to the Ottoman capital ofEdirne. In 1453, afterMehmed the Conqueror'sconquest of Constantinople, the seat of the Ottomans moved toConstantinople, present-dayIstanbul. In 1517, the Ottoman sultanSelim I defeated and annexed the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo into his empire.[48][49] Through conquering and unifying Muslim lands, Selim I became the defender of the holy cities ofMecca andMedina, which further strengthened the Ottoman claim to the caliphate in the Muslim world. Ottomans gradually came to be viewed as the de facto leaders and representatives of the Islamic world. However, the earlier Ottoman caliphs did not officially bear the title of caliph in their documents of state, inscriptions, or coinage.[49] It was only in the late eighteenth century that the claim to the caliphate was discovered by the sultans to have a practical use, since it allowed them to counter Russian claims to protect Ottoman Christians with their own claim to protect Muslims under Russian rule.[50][51]
The outcome of theRusso-Turkish War of 1768–1774 was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations, such asCrimea, were lost to the Russian Empire.[51] However, the Ottomans underAbdul Hamid I claimed a diplomatic victory by being allowed to remain the religious leaders of Muslims in the now-independent Crimea as part of the peace treaty; in return Russia became the official protector of Christians in Ottoman territory.[51] According to Barthold, the first time the title of "caliph" was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was theTreaty of Küçük Kaynarca with theRussian Empire in 1774, when the Empire retainedmoral authority on territory whose sovereignty was ceded to the Russian Empire.[51] TheBritish would tactfully affirm the Ottoman claim to the caliphate and proceed to have the Ottoman caliph issue orders to the Muslims living inBritish India to comply with the British government.[52]
The British supported and propagated the view that the Ottomans were caliphs of Islam among Muslims in British India, and the Ottoman sultans helped the British by issuing pronouncements to the Muslims of India telling them to support British rule from SultanSelim III and SultanAbdulmejid I.[52]
Around 1880, SultanAbdul Hamid II reasserted the title as a way of countering Russian expansion into Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Sunni Muslims ofBritish India.[53] By the eve ofWorld War I, the Ottoman state, despite its weakness relative to Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.[citation needed]
In 1899,John Hay, U.S. Secretary of State, asked the American ambassador toOttoman Turkey,Oscar Straus, to approach Sultan Abdul Hamid II to use his position as caliph to order theTausūg people of theSultanate of Sulu in the Philippines to submit to Americansuzerainty and American military rule; the Sultan obliged them and wrote the letter which was sent to Sulu via Mecca. As a result, the "Sulu Mohammedans ... refused to join the insurrectionists and had placed themselves under the control of our army, thereby recognizing American sovereignty."[54][55]
After theArmistice of Mudros of October 1918 with the militaryoccupation of Constantinople andTreaty of Versailles (1919), the position of the Ottomans was uncertain. The movement to protect or restore the Ottomans gained force after theTreaty of Sèvres (August 1920) which imposed thepartitioning of the Ottoman Empire and gave Greece a powerful position in Anatolia, to the distress of the Turks. They called for help and the movement was the result. The movement had collapsed by late 1922.
Egyptian scholarAli Abdel Raziq published his 1925 bookIslam and the Foundations of Governance. The argument of this book has been summarised as "Islam does not advocate a specific form of government".[57] He focussed his criticism both at those who use religious law as contemporary political proscription and at the history of rulers claiming legitimacy by the caliphate.[58] Raziq wrote that past rulers spread the notion of religious justification for the caliphate "so that they could use religion as a shield protecting their thrones against the attacks of rebels".[59]
A summit was convened atCairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of the caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate, and no action was taken to implement the summit's resolutions. Though the titleAmeer al-Mumineen was adopted by the King of Morocco and byMohammed Omar, former head of theTaliban ofAfghanistan, neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries.[citation needed]
Since the end of the Ottoman Empire, occasional demonstrations have been held calling for the re-establishment of the caliphate. Organisations which call for the re-establishment of the caliphate includeHizb ut-Tahrir and theMuslim Brotherhood.[60] TheAKP government in Turkey, a former Muslim Brotherhood ally who has adoptedNeo-Ottomanist policies throughout its rule, has been accused of intending to restore the caliphate.[61]
TheKhilafat Movement was launched by Muslims inBritish India in 1920 to defend the Ottoman Caliphateat the end of the First World War and it spread throughout the British colonial territories. It was strong in British India where it formed a rallying point for some Indian Muslims as one of many anti-British Indian political movements. Its leaders includedMohammad Ali Jouhar, his brother Shawkat Ali andMaulana Abul Kalam Azad,Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Barrister Muhammad Jan Abbasi. For a time it was supported byMohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who was a member of the Central Khilafat Committee.[62][63][better source needed] However, the movement lost its momentum after the abolition of the caliphate in 1924. After further arrests and flight of its leaders, and a series of offshoots splintered off from the main organisation, the Movement eventually died down and disbanded.
Hafiz MuhiuddinAurangzeb, unlike his predecessors, was considered to be a caliph of India.
After theUmayyad campaigns in India and the conquest on small territories of the western part of the Indian peninsula, early Indian Muslim dynasties were founded by theGhurid dynasty and theGhaznavids, most notably theDelhi Sultanate. The Indian sultanates did not extensively strive for a caliphate since theOttoman Empire was already observing the caliphate.[64]
The emperors of theMughal Empire, who were the only Sunni rulers whose territory and wealth could compete with that of the Ottomans, started assuming the title of caliph and calling their capital as theDar-ul-khilafat ('abode of the caliphate') since the time of the third emperorAkbar like their Timurid ancestors. A gold coin struck under Akbar called him the "greatsultan, the exaltedkhalifah". Although the Mughals did not acknowledge the overlordship of Ottomans, they nevertheless used the title of caliph to honour them in diplomatic exchanges. Akbar's letter toSuleiman the Magnificent addressed the latter as having attained the rank of the caliphate, while calling Akbar's empire as the "Khilafat of realms of Hind and Sind."[65] The fifth emperorShah Jahan also laid claim to the Caliphate.[66] Although the Mughal Empire is not recognised as a caliphate, its sixth emperorAurangzeb has often been regarded as one of the few Islamic caliphs to have ruled the Indian peninsula.[67] He received support from theOttoman sultans such asSuleiman II andMehmed IV. As a memoriser of Quran, Aurangzeb fully establishedsharia in South Asia via hisFatawa 'Alamgiri.[citation needed] He re-introducedjizya and banned Islamically unlawful activities. However, Aurangzeb's personal expenses were covered by his own incomes, which included the sewing of caps and trade of his written copies of the Quran. Thus, he has been compared to the second caliph,Umar bin Khattab, and Kurdish conquerorSaladin.[68][69] The Mughal emperors continued to be addressed as caliphs until the reign ofShah Alam II.[70]
The Bornu Caliphate (1472–1893), which was headed by the Bornu emperors, began in 1472. A rump state of the largerKanem-Bornu Empire, its rulers held the title of caliph until 1893, when it was absorbed into the BritishColony of Nigeria andNorthern Cameroons Protectorate. The British recognised them as the 'sultans of Bornu', one step down in Muslim royal titles. After Nigeria became independent, its rulers became the 'emirs of Bornu', another step down.
TheSokoto Caliphate (1804–1903) was an Islamic state in what is nowNigeria led byUsman dan Fodio. Founded during theFulani War in the early nineteenth century, it controlled one of the most powerful empires insub-Saharan Africa prior to European conquest and colonisation culminating in theAdamawa Wars and theBattle of Kano. The caliphate remained extant through the colonial period and afterwards, though with reduced power.[citation needed] The current head of the Sokoto Caliphate isSa'adu Abubakar.
TheToucouleur Empire (1848–1893), also known as the Tukular Empire, was one of theFulani jihad states in sub-saharan Africa. It was eventually pacified and annexed by theFrench Republic, being incorporated intoFrench West Africa. Additionally, theMassina Empire (1818–1862) joined these jihad states in West Africa and claimed to be a caliphate.
Yogyakarta Caliphate (1755–2015)
The Indonesiansultan of Yogyakarta historically usedKhalifatullah (Caliph of God) as one of his titles. In 2015 sultanHamengkubuwono X renounced any claim to the caliphate to facilitatehis daughter's inheritance of the throne, as the theological opinion of the time was that a woman may hold the secular office of sultan but not the spiritual office of caliph.[73][better source needed]
France planned to appoint sultanYusef of Morocco, who served as the leader of theFrench protectorate in Morocco, as their "Caliph of the West" to strengthen their control over their colonies in Africa and the Middle East after the1914 Ottoman jihad proclamation. As part of theAlawi dynasty, he claimed to be a descendant of Fatima. France abandoned the plan in theSykes–Picot Agreement in 1916 which gave Britain free hand in creating their own caliphate in Arabia which also never came to fruition.[74]
The Sharifian Caliphate (Arabic:خلافة شريفية) was an Arab caliphate proclaimed by theSharifian rulers ofHejaz in 1924 previously known asVilayet Hejaz, declaring independence from theOttoman Caliphate. The idea of the Sharifian Caliphate had been floating around since at least the fifteenth century.[75] In theArab world, it represented the culmination of a long struggle to reclaim the caliphate from Ottoman hands. The first Arab revolts challenging the validity of the Ottoman Caliphate and demanding that an ArabSayyid be chosen as caliph can be traced back to 1883 when Sheikh Hamat-al-Din seizedSanaa and called for the caliphate as a Sayyid.[76]
However, it was not until theend of the Ottoman Caliphate, abolished by theKemalists, that Hussein bin Ali was proclaimed caliph in March 1924. His stance towards the Ottoman Caliphate was ambiguous, and while he was hostile to it,[77] he preferred to wait for its official abolition before assuming the title, so as not to break theUmmah by creating a second caliph alongside theOttoman caliph. He also supported financially the late Ottoman dynasty in exile, to avoid them being ruined.[78][better source needed]
Though non-political, someSufi orders and theAhmadiyya movement[86] define themselves as caliphates. Their leaders are thus commonly referred to askhalifas (caliphs).
Sufi caliphates
InSufism,tariqas (orders) are led by spiritual leaders (khilafah ruhaniyyah), the main khalifas, who nominate local khalifas to organisezaouias.[87] Sufi caliphates are not necessarily hereditary. Khalifas are aimed to serve thesilsilah in relation to spiritual responsibilities and to propagate the teachings of the tariqa.
The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is a self-proclaimed Islamic revivalist movement founded in 1889 byMirza Ghulam Ahmad ofQadian, India, who claimed to be the promisedMessiah andMahdi, awaited by Muslims. He also claimed to be a follower-prophet subordinate to Muhammad, the prophet of Islam.[citation needed] The group are traditionally shunned by the majority of Muslims.[88]
After Ahmad's death in 1908, his first successor,Hakeem Noor-ud-Din, became the caliph of the community and assumed the title ofKhalifatul Masih (Successor or Caliph of the Messiah).[citation needed] After Hakeem Noor-ud-Din, the first caliph, the title of the Ahmadiyya caliph continued underMirza Mahmud Ahmad, who led the community for over 50 years. Following him wereMirza Nasir Ahmad and thenMirza Tahir Ahmad who were the third and fourth caliphs respectively.[citation needed] The current caliph isMirza Masroor Ahmad, who lives in London.[89][90]
Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry among Muslim rulers, the caliphate lay dormant and largely unclaimed since the 1920s. For the majority of Muslims, the caliph, as leader of theummah, "is cherished both as memory and ideal"[91] as a time when Muslims "enjoyed scientific and military superiority globally".[92] Muhammad is reported to have prophesied:
Prophethood will remain with you for as long as Allah wills it to remain, then Allah will raise it up whenever he wills to raise it up. Afterwards, there will be a Caliphate that follows the guidance of Prophethood remaining with you for as long as Allah wills it to remain. Then, He will raise it up whenever He wills to raise it up. Afterwards, there will be a reign of violently oppressive rule and it will remain with you for as long as Allah wills it to remain. Then, there will be a reign of tyrannical rule and it will remain for as long as Allah wills it to remain. Then, Allah will raise it up whenever He wills to raise it up. Then, there will be a Caliphate that follows the guidance of Prophethood.
— As-Silsilah As-Sahihah, vol. 1, no. 5
Abu Issa caliphate (1993 – c. 2014)
A contemporary effort to re-establish the caliphate by supporters of armed jihad that predatesAbu Bakr al-Baghdadi and theIslamic State and was much less successful, was "the forgotten caliphate" of Muhammad bin ʿIssa bin Musa al Rifaʿi ("known to his followers as Abu ʿIssa").[93] This "microcaliphate" was founded on 3 April 1993 on the Pakistan–Afghanistan border, when Abu Issa's small number of "Afghan Arabs" followers swore loyalty (bay'ah) to him.[94] Abu Issa, was born in the city ofZarqa, Jordan and like his followers had come to Afghanistan to wage jihad against the Soviets. Unlike them he had ancestors in the tribe ofQuraysh, a traditional requirement for a caliph. The caliphate was ostensibly an attempt to unite the other jihadis who were not his followers and who were quarrelling among each other. It was not successful.[95] Abu Issa's efforts to compel them to unite under his command were met "with mockery and then force". Local Afghans also despised him and his followers. Like the later Islamic State he tried to abolish infidel currency and rejected nationalism.[94] According to scholar Kevin Jackson,
Abu ʿIssa issued 'sad and funny' fatwas, as Abu al-Walid puts it, notably sanctioning the use of drugs. A nexus had been forged between [Abu Issa's group] and local drug smugglers. (The fatwa led one jihadist author to dismiss Abu Issa as the 'caliph of the Muslims among drug traffickers and takfir') Abu ʿIssa also prohibited the use of paper currency and ordered his men to burn their passports.[96]
The territory under his control "did not extend beyond a few small towns" in Afghanistan'sKunar province. Eventually he did not even control this area after the Taliban took it over in the late 1990s. The caliphate then moved to London, where they "preach[ed] to a mostly skeptical jihadi intelligentsia about the obligation of establishing a caliphate".[97] They succeeded in attracting some jihadis (Yahya al-Bahrumi, Abu Umar al Kuwaiti) who later joined the Islamic State. Abu Issa died in 2014, "after spending most of his final years in prison in London".[97] Abu Umar al Kuwaiti became a judge for the Islamic state but was later executed for extremism after he "tooktakfir to new levels ... pronouncing death sentences for apostasy on those who were ignorant of scripture – and then pronouncing takfir on those too reluctant to pronounce takfir."[98]
ISIL's territory, in grey, at the time of its greatest territorial extent in May 2015Military situation in Libya in early 2016: Ansar al-ShariaIslamic State
A network of Islamist militants formed theAl-Qaeda in Iraq affiliate during theIraq War (2003–2011). The group eventually expanded into Syria and rose to prominence as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) during theSyrian Civil War. In the summer of 2014, the group launched theNorthern Iraq offensive, seizing the city ofMosul.[99][100] The group declared itself a caliphate underAbu Bakr al-Baghdadi on 29 June 2014 and renamed itself as the "Islamic State".[101][102] ISIL's claim to be the highest authority of Muslims has been widely rejected.[103] No prominent Muslim scholar has supported its declaration of caliphate; evenSalafi jihadist preachers accused the group of engaging in political showmanship and bringing disrepute to the notion of Islamic state.[104]
The members of theAhmadiyya community believe that the Ahmadiyya Caliphate is the continuation of the Islamic caliphate, first being theRāshidūn (rightly guided) Caliphate (of Righteous Caliphs). This is believed to have been suspended with Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad and re-established with the appearance ofMirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908, the founder of the movement) whom Ahmadis identify as the Promised Messiah andMahdi.
Ahmadis maintain that in accordance with Quranic verses (such as24:55) and a number of ahadith on the issue, caliphates can only be established by God himself. and is a divine blessing given to "those who believe and work righteousness" and uphold the unity of God, therefore any movement to establish the caliphates centered on human endeavours alone is bound to fail, particularly when the condition of the people diverges from the "precepts of prophethood" and they are as a result disunited, their inability to establish a caliphate caused fundamentally by the lack of righteousness in them. Although the caliph is elected, it is believed that God himself directs the hearts of believers towards an individual. Thus the caliph is designated neither necessarily by right (i.e. the rightful or competent one in the eyes of the people at that time) nor merely by election but primarily by God.[citation needed][107][non-primary source needed]
According to Ahmadiyya thought, a khalifa need not be the head of a state; rather the Ahmadiyya community emphasises the spiritual and organisational significance of the Khilāfah. It is primarily a religious/spiritual office, with the purpose of upholding, strengthening and spreading Islam and of maintaining the high spiritual and moral standards within the global community established by Muhammad—who was not merely a political leader but primarily a religious leader. If a khalifa does happen to bear governmental authority as a head of state, it is incidental and subsidiary in relation to his overall function as khalifa which is applicable to believers transnationally and not limited to one particular state.[108][109]
Ahmadi Muslims believe that God has assured them that this caliphate will endure to the end of time, depending on their righteousness and faith in God. The Khalifa provides unity, security, moral direction and progress for the community. It is required that the Khalifa carry out his duties through consultation and taking into consideration the views of the members of theShura (consultative body). However, it is not incumbent upon him to always accept the views and recommendations of the members. The Khalifatul Masih has overall authority for all religious and organisational matters and is bound to decide and act in accordance with the Qur'an and sunnah.
Islamist call
A number of Islamist political parties andmujahideen called for the restoration of the caliphate by uniting Muslim nations, either through political action (e.g.Hizb ut-Tahrir), or through force (e.g.al-Qaeda).[110] Various Islamist movements gained momentum in recent years with the ultimate aim of establishing a caliphate. In 2014, ISIL/ISIS made a claim to re-establishing the caliphate. Those advocating the re-establishment of a caliphate differed in their methodology and approach. Some[who?] were locally oriented, mainstream political parties that had no apparent transnational objectives.[citation needed]
Abul A'la Maududi believed the caliph was not just an individual ruler who had to be restored, but was man's representation of God's authority on Earth:
Khilafa means representative. Man, according to Islam is the representative of "people", His (God's) viceregent; that is to say, by virtue of the powers delegated to him, and within the limits prescribed by the Qu'ran and the teaching of the prophet, the caliph is required to exercise Divine authority.[111]
One transnational group whose ideology was based specifically on restoring the caliphate as a pan-Islamic state isHizb ut-Tahrir (literally, 'Party of Liberation'). It is particularly strong in Central Asia and Europe and is growing in strength in the Arab world. It is based on the claim that Muslims can prove that God exists[113] and that the Qur'an is the word of God.[citation needed] Hizb ut-Tahrir's stated strategy is a non-violent political and intellectual struggle.
Al-Qaeda has as one of its clearly stated goals the re-establishment of a caliphate.[114] Its former leader, Osama bin Laden, called for Muslims to "establish the righteous caliphate of our umma".[115]Al-Qaeda chiefs released a statement in 2005, under which, in what they call "phase five" there will be "anIslamic state, or caliphate".[116] Al-Qaeda has named its Internet newscast fromIraq "The Voice of the Caliphate".[117] According to author and Egyptian nativeLawrence Wright,Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden's mentor and al-Qaeda's second-in-command until 2011, once "sought to restore the caliphate... which had formally ended in 1924 following the dissolution of theOttoman Empire but which had not exercised real power since the thirteenth century." Zawahiri believes that once the caliphate is re-established, Egypt would become a rallying point for the rest of the Islamic world, leading thejihad against the West. "Then history would make a new turn, God willing", Zawahiri later wrote, "in the opposite direction against the empire of the United States and the world's Jewish government".[118]
Opposition
ScholarOlivier Roy writes that "early on, Islamists replace the concept of the caliphate ... with that of the emir." There were a number of reasons including "that according to the classical authors, a caliph must be a member of the tribe of the Prophet (the Quraysh) ... moreover, caliphs ruled societies that the Islamists do not consider to have been Islamic (the Ottoman Empire)."[119] This is not the view of the majority of Islamist groups, as both the Muslim Brotherhood and Hizb ut-Tahrir view the Ottoman state as a caliphate.[120][non-primary source needed][121][better source needed]
TheQuran uses the termkhalifa twice. First, in SurahAl-Baqara2:30, it refers toGod creating humanity as hiskhalifa on Earth. Second, in SurahSad38:26, it addresses KingDavid as God'skhalifaand reminds him of his obligation to rule with justice.[122]
In addition, the following excerpt from the Quran, known as the 'Istikhlaf Verse', is used by some to argue for a Quranic basis for a caliphate:
Allah has promised those of you who believe and do good that He will certainly make themsuccessors in the land, as He did with those before them; and will surely establish for them their faith which He has chosen for them; and will indeed change their fear into security—˹provided that˺ they worship Me, associating nothing with Me. But whoever disbelieves after this ˹promise˺, it is they who will be the rebellious.
Several schools of jurisprudence and thought within Sunni Islam argue that to govern a state bySharia is, by definition, to rule via the caliphate and use the following verses to sustain their claim.
And judge between them ˹O Prophet˺ by what Allah has revealed, and do not follow their desires. And beware, so they do not lure you away from some of what Allah has revealed to you. If they turn away ˹from Allah's judgment˺, then know that it is Allah's Will to repay them for some of their sins, and that many people are indeed rebellious.
O believers! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. Should you disagree on anything, then refer it to Allah and His Messenger, if you ˹truly˺ believe in Allah and the Last Day. This is the best and fairest resolution.
The followinghadith fromMusnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal can be understood to prophesy two eras of the caliphate (both on the lines/precepts of prophethood).
Hadhrat Huzaifa narrated that the Messenger of Allah said: Prophethood will remain among you as long as Allah wills. Then Caliphate (Khilafah) on the lines of Prophethood shall commence, and remain as long as Allah wills. Then corrupt/erosive monarchy would take place, and it will remain as long as Allah wills. After that, despotic kingship would emerge, and it will remain as long as Allah wills. Then, the Caliphate (Khilafah) shall come once again based on the precept ofProphethood.[123][page needed]
In the above, the first era of the caliphate is commonly accepted by Muslims to be that of theRashidun Caliphate.
Nafi'a reported saying:
It has been reported on the authority of Nafi, that 'Abdullah b. Umar paid a visit to Abdullah b. Muti' in the days (when atrocities were perpetrated on the People Of Medina) at Harra in the time of Yazid b. Mu'awiya. Ibn Muti' said: Place a pillow for Abu 'Abd al-Rahman (family name of 'Abdullah b. 'Umar). But the latter said: I have not come to sit with you. I have come to you to tell you a tradition I heard from the Messenger of Allah. I heard him say: One who withdraws his band from obedience (to the Amir) will find no argument (in his defence) when he stands before Allah on the Day of Judgment, and one who dies without having bound himself by an oath of allegiance (to an Amir) will die the death of one belonging to the days of Jahiliyyah.
Leaders will take charge of you after me, where the pious (one) will lead you with his piety and the impious (one) with his impiety, so only listen to them and obey them in everything which conforms with the truth (Islam). If they act rightly it is for your credit, and if they acted wrongly it is counted for you and against them.
It has been narrated on the authority ofAbu Huraira that the Prophet of Allah said:
A Imam is a shield for them. They fight behind him and they are protected by (him from tyrants and aggressors). If he enjoins fear of God, the Exalted and Glorious, and dispenses justice, there will be a (great) reward for him; and if he enjoins otherwise, it redounds on him.
The Prophet said, "TheIsraelis used to be ruled and guided by prophets: Whenever a prophet died, another would take over his place. There will be no prophet after me, but there will be Caliphs who will increase in number." The people asked, "O Allah's Messenger! What do you order us (to do)?" He said, "Obey the one who will be given the pledge of allegiance first. Fulfil their (i.e. the Caliphs) rights, for Allah will ask them about (any shortcoming) in ruling those Allah has put under their guardianship."
Many Islamic texts, including severalahadith, state that the Mahdi will be elected caliph and rule over a caliphate.[124] A number of Islamic figures titled themselves both "caliph" and "al-Mahdi", including the first Abbasid caliphAs-Saffah.[125]
TheSahaba of Muhammad
Al-Habbab Ibn ul-Munthir said, when the Sahaba met in the wake of the death of Muhammad, (at thethaqifa hall) of Bani Sa’ida:
Let there be one Amir from us and one Amir from you (meaning one from the Ansar and one from the Mohajireen).
Upon this Abu Bakr replied:
It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Amirs (rulers)...
It has additionally been reported[132] that Abu Bakr went on to say on the day of Al-Saqifa:
It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Amirs for this would cause differences in their affairs and concepts, their unity would be divided and disputes would break out among them. TheSunnah would then be abandoned, thebida'a (innovations) would spread and Fitna would grow, and that is in no one's interests.
The Sahaba agreed to this and selected Abu Bakr as their first Khaleef. Habbab ibn Mundhir who suggested the idea of two Ameers corrected himself and was the first to give Abu Bakr theBay'ah. This indicates an Ijma as-Sahaba of all of the Sahaba. Ali ibni abi Talib, who was attending the body of Muhammad at the time, also consented to this.
People must have an Amir...where the believer works under his Imara (rule) and under which the unbeliever would also benefit, until his rule ended by the end of his life (ajal), the booty (fay’i) would be gathered, the enemy would be fought, the routes would be made safe, the strong one will return what he took from the weak till the tyrant would be contained, and not bother anyone.
The Imams (scholars of the four schools of thought)- may Allah have mercy on them- agree that the Caliphate is an obligation, and that the Muslims must appoint a leader who would implement the injunctions of the religion, and give the oppressed justice against the oppressors. It is forbidden for Muslims to have two leaders in the world whether in agreement or discord.
Shia scholars have expressed similar opinions.[141][142][143][144] However, the Shia school of thought states that theleader must not be appointed by the Islamic ummah, but must be appointed by God.
Al-Qurtubi said that the caliph is the "pillar upon which other pillars rest", and said of the Quranic verse, "Indeed, man is made upon this earth a Caliph":[145][146]
This Ayah is a source in the selection of an Imaam, and a Khaleef, he is listened to and he is obeyed, for the word is united through him, and the Ahkam (laws) of the Caliph are implemented through him, and there is no difference regarding the obligation of that between the Ummah ...
(The scholars) consented that it is an obligation upon the Muslims to select a Khalif
Al-Ghazali when writing of the potential consequences of losing the caliphate said:[148]
The judges will be suspended, the Wilayaat (provinces) will be nullified, ... the decrees of those in authority will not be executed and all the people will be on the verge of Haraam
It is obligatory to know that the office in charge of commanding over the people (ie: the post of the Khaleefah) is one of the greatest obligations of theDeen. In fact, there is no establishment of the Deen except by it....this is the opinion of thesalaf, such asAl-Fuḍayl ibn ‘Iyāḍ,Ahmad ibn Hanbal and others
Government
Electing or appointing a caliph
In his bookThe Early Islamic Conquests (1981),Fred Donner argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from among themselves, although there was no specified procedure for thisshura, or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone. Since the Umayyads, all caliphates have been dynastic.
Traditionally, Sunni Muslimmadhhabs all agreed that a caliph must be a descendant of the Quraysh.[150]Al-Baqillani has said that the leader of the Muslims simply should be from the majority.
Sunni belief
Following the death of Muhammad, a meeting took place atSaqifah. At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler, appointed to rule within the bounds of Islamic law (Sharia). The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left tomujtahids, legal specialists collectively called theUlama. A number of Muslims call the first four caliphs the Rashidun, meaning the 'Rightly Guided', because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the sunnah of Muhammad.[citation needed]
With the exception ofZaidis,[151] Shia Muslims believe in theImamate, a principle by which rulers are imams who are divinely chosen, infallible and sinless and must come from theAhl al-Bayt regardless of majority opinion,shura or election. They claim that before his death, Muhammad had given multiple indications, in thehadith of the pond of Khumm in particular, that he consideredAli, his cousin and son-in-law, as his successor. For theTwelvers, Ali and his eleven descendants, theTwelve Imams, are believed to have been considered, even before their birth, as the only valid Islamic rulers appointed and decreed by God. Shia Muslims believe that all the Muslim caliphs following Muhammad's death to be illegitimate due to their unjust rule and that Muslims have no obligation to follow them, as the only guidance that was left behind, as ordained in thehadith of thetwo weighty things, was the Islamic holy book, theQuran and Muhammad's family and offspring, who are believed to beinfallible, therefore able to lead society and the Muslim community with complete justice and equity.[152][153][154][155] The Prophet's own grandson, and third Shia imam,Hussain ibn Ali led an uprising against injustice and the oppressive rule of the Muslim caliph at the time at the Battle of Karbala. ShiaMuslims emphasise that values ofsocial justice, and speaking out againstoppression and tyranny are not merely moral values, but values essential to a person's religiosity.[156][157][158][153]
After these Twelve Imams, the potential caliphs, had passed, and in the absence of the possibility of a government headed by their imams, some Twelvers believe it was necessary that a system of Shi'i Islamic government based on theGuardianship of the Islamic Jurist be developed, due to the need for some form of government, where an Islamic jurist orfaqih rules Muslims, suffices. However, this idea, developed by themarja' AyatollahRuhollah Khomeini and established in Iran, is not universally accepted among the Shia.
Ismailis believe in the Imamate principle mentioned above, but they need not be secular rulers as well.
TheNizari continue to have a living imam; the current imam is theAga Khan.
TheTaiyabi Ismaili have, since the year 1130, followed the imam's chief officer, theDai al-Mutlaq, as they believe the imams are in a state of hiding.
TheMajlis al-Shura (literally 'consultative assembly') was a representation of the idea of consultative governance. The importance of this is premised by the following verses of the Qur'an:
"...who respond to their Lord, establish prayer, conduct their affairs by mutual consultation"(42:38)
"...and consult with them in ˹conducting˺ matters. Once you make a decision, put your trust in Allah."(3:159)
The majlis is also the means to elect a new caliph.[159] Al-Mawardi has written that members of the majlis should satisfy three conditions: they must be just, have enough knowledge to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one and have sufficient wisdom and judgement to select the best caliph. Al-Mawardi also said that in emergencies when there is no caliphate and no majlis, the people themselves should create a majlis and select a list of candidates for caliph; then the majlis should select a caliph from the list of candidates.[159]
Some Islamist interpretations of the role of the Majlis al-Shura are the following: In an analysis of the shura chapter of the Qur'an, Islamist authorSayyid Qutb argues that Islam only requires the ruler to consult with some of the representatives of the ruled and govern within the context of the Sharia.Taqiuddin al-Nabhani, the founder of a transnational political movement devoted to the revival of the caliphate, writes that although the Shura is an important part of "the ruling structure" of the Islamic caliphate, "(it is) not one of its pillars", meaning that its neglect would not make a caliph's rule un-Islamic such as to justify a rebellion. However, the Muslim Brotherhood, the largest Islamic movement in Egypt, has toned down these Islamist views by accepting in principle that in the modern age the Majlis al-Shura is democracy.
Accountability of rulers
Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public the people must obey their laws, but a caliph or ruler who becomes either unjust or severely ineffective must be impeached via the Majlis al-Shura.Al-Juwayni argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler who deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al-Ghazali believed thatoppression by a caliph is sufficient grounds for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment,Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani stated that the people have an obligation to rebel if the caliph begins to act with no regard for Islamic law. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation isharaam and those who cannot revolt from inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. Al-Asqalani used twoayahs from the Qur'an to justify this:
And they (the sinners onqiyama) will say, "Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and elite, but they led us astray from the ˹Right˺ Way. Our Lord! Give them double ˹our˺ punishment, and condemn them tremendously."
Islamic lawyers commented that when the rulers refuse to step down after being impeached through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, if the majority is in agreement they have the option to launch a revolution. Some noted that this option is to be exercised only after factoring in the potential cost of life.[159]
Narrated ‘Aisha: The people of Quraish worried about the lady fromBani Makhzum who had committed theft. They asked, "Who will intercede for her with Allah's Apostle?" Some said, "No one dare to do so except Usama bin Zaid the beloved one to Allah's Apostle." When Usama spoke about that to Allah's Apostle; Allah's Apostle said: "Do you try to intercede for somebody in a case connected with Allah’s Prescribed Punishments?" Then he got up and delivered a sermon saying, "What destroyed the nations preceding you, was that if a noble amongst them stole, they would forgive him, and if a poor person amongst them stole, they would inflict Allah's Legal punishment on him. By Allah, ifFatima, the daughter of Muhammad (my daughter) stole, I would cut off her hand."
Various Islamic lawyers, however, place multiple conditions and stipulations on the execution of such a law, making it difficult to implement. For example, the poor cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty, and during a time of drought in theRashidun Caliphate, capital punishment was suspended until the effects of the drought passed.[161]
Islamic jurists later formulated the concept that all classes were subject to the law of the land, and no person is above the law; officials and private citizens alike have aduty to obey the same law. Furthermore, aQadi (Islamic judge) was not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion,race,colour,kinship orprejudice. In a number of cases, caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to render their verdict.[162]
During theMuslim Agricultural Revolution, the caliphate understood that realincentives were needed to increaseproductivity and wealth and thus enhancetax revenues. A social transformation took place as a result of changing landownership[164] giving individuals of anygender,[165]ethnic or religious background the right to buy, sell,mortgage andinherit land for farming or any other purpose. Signatures were required on contracts for every majorfinancial transaction concerning agriculture,industry, commerce and employment. Copies of the contract were usually kept by both parties involved.[164]
Early Islamic law included collection ofzakat (charity), one of theFive Pillars of Islam, since the time of the first Islamic State, established by Muhammad at Medina. The taxes (includingzakat andjizya) collected in the treasury (Bayt al-mal) of an Islamic government were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows and thedisabled. During the caliphate of Abu Bakr, a number of the Arab tribes, who had accepted Islam at the hand of The Prophet Muhammad, rebelled and refused to continue to pay the Zakat, leading to theRidda Wars. CaliphUmar added to the duties of the state an allowance, paid on behalf of every man woman and child, starting at birth, creating the world's first state run social welfare program.
Maya Shatzmiller states that the demographic behaviour of medieval Islamic society varied in some significant respects from other agricultural societies. Nomadic groups within places like the deserts of Egypt andMorocco maintained high birth rates compared to rural and urban populations, though periods of extremely high nomadic birth rates seem to have occurred in occasional "surges" rather than on a continuous basis. Individuals living in large cities had much lower birth rates, possibly due to the use ofbirth control methods and political or economic instability. This led to population declines in some regions. While several studies have shown thatIslamic scholars enjoyed a life expectancy of 59–75 years between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries,[175][176] the overall life expectancy of men in the same societies was lower.[177] Factoring ininfant mortality, Lawrence Conrad estimates the average lifespan in the early Islamic caliphate to be above 35 years for the general population, compared to around 40 years for the population ofClassical Greece[178] and 31 years for the population of thirteenth-century England.[179]
The early Islamic Empire also had the highest literacy rates among pre-modern societies, alongside the city ofclassical Athens in the fourth century BC, and later, China after the introduction of printing from the tenth century. One factor for the relatively high literacy rates in the early Islamic Empire was its parent-driven educational marketplace, as the state did not systematically subsidise educational services until the introduction of state funding underNizam al-Mulk in the eleventh century.[180] Another factor was the diffusion of paper from China, which led to an efflorescence of books and written culture in Islamic society; thuspapermaking technology transformed Islamic society from an oral to scribal culture, comparable to the later shifts from scribal totypographic culture, and from typographic culture to the Internet. Other factors include the widespread use of paper books in Islamic society (more so than any other previously existing society), the studyand memorisation of the Quran, flourishingcommercial activity and the emergence of theMaktab andMadrasah educational institutions.[181]
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