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Thecalceus (pl.:calcei) was the commonupper-class male footwear of theRoman Republic andEmpire. Normally made ofleather andhobnailed, it was flatsoled and typically reached the lowershin, entirely covering the foot andankle. It was secured with crossed thongs or laces. Equivalent to a shortboot orhigh-top shoe, it was lighter than themilitarycaliga but sturdier thanslip-on shoes like thesoccus and able to easily handle outdoor use.
TheLatin wordcalceus derives fromcalx ("heel") and the usually Grecian suffix-eus, meaning essentially "heely" or "thing for the heel". It is frequently taken loosely as the general Latin word for any laced and coveredshoe[1] distinguished from sandals, slippers, and boots.Theodor Mommsen even considered it to sometimes intend sandals as well.[2] Similarly,medieval Latin used the adjectivediscalceātus to indicate bothmendicant orders which only used sandals and those which went entirely barefoot.
Normally made ofleather andhobnailed, the calceus was flatsoled and typically reached the lowershin, entirely covering the foot andankle. It was secured with crossed thongs or laces. Equivalent to a shortboot orhigh-top shoe, it was lighter than themilitarycaliga but sturdier thanslip-on shoes like thesoccus and able to easily handle outdoor use.[3]
Calcei were considered a distinctive part of the national dress of maleRoman citizens, alongside thetoga. The combination of toga and calcei was impressive, but also hot and uncomfortable. TheRoman poetMartial claimed that, in their leisure time and in the more relaxed surroundings of rural life, hardly anyone used it by the early imperial period.[4] Even in Rome, some high-ranking citizens preferred to wear light Grecian sandals orsocci rather than calcei to "go with the crowd".[5][6]
The calcei of mostplebs were made of undyed but tanned leather. (The version made with untannedrawhide instead was known as the pero.) The "patrician calceus"(calceus patricius) seems to have often been dyed red,Tyrian purple, or some equivalent.[7]Senators and higher rankingpriests were likewise expected to wear themulleus or "red calceus"(calceus mulleus) along with their red-edgedtoga praetexta while engaged in their public duties.Festus claimed the mulleus was originally used by the kings ofAlba Longa before being adopted by the patricians.[8]Cassius Dio states that the patrician shoes were originally marked with theletter R,[9] although early forms of Latin used an R closer in shape to the laterP. Francis X. Ryan has offered that this class distinction in footwear—rather than procedural status—may have been responsible for the name of thebackbenchersenatores pedarii.[2]Cato the Elder stated that, by the end of the Republic, plebs who had reachedcurule office were entitled to the formerly patrician footwear.[8] Plebeian generals likeMarius who celebrated atriumph were likewise permitted to wear them.[10]Talbert states that by the imperial era there is no conclusive evidence that footwear continued to differ between the classes as a whole,[11] possibly because the emperors began to restrict the use of certain status symbols to themselves.[2]
Other calcei were distinguished by their ornamentation. The "equestrian calceus"(calceus equestris orequester) included distinct crescent-shaped buckles.[citation needed] The "senatorial calceus"(calceus senatorius) was likewise distinguished by a crescent-shaped ornament, anivorylunula attached to the back of the shoe.[12] By the mid-imperial period, this was probably made of black leather.[13]
The "turned calceus" (New Latincalceus repandus) was an unrelated pointy-toed unisexEtruscan form of footwear, which received its name from a passage inCicero where he referencesJuno Sospita'scalceoli, "little calceus-like shoes".[14]
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