Cadmium is achemical element; it hassymbolCd andatomic number 48. This soft, silvery-whitemetal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals ingroup 12,zinc andmercury. Like zinc, it demonstratesoxidation state +2 in most of its compounds, and like mercury, it has a lower melting point than thetransition metals ingroups 3 through11. Cadmium and itscongeners in group 12 are often not considered transition metals, in that they do not have partly filledd orf electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states. The average concentration of cadmium in Earth's crust is between 0.1 and 0.5 parts per million (ppm). It was discovered in 1817 simultaneously byStromeyer andHermann, both in Germany, as an impurity inzinc carbonate.
Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and is a byproduct of zinc production. It was used for a long time in the 1900s as a corrosion-resistant plating onsteel, and cadmium compounds are used as red, orange, and yellowpigments, to colorglass, and to stabilizeplastic. Cadmium's use is generally decreasing because it istoxic, andnickel–cadmium batteries have been replaced withnickel–metal hydride andlithium-ion batteries. Because it is aneutron poison, cadmium is also used as a component ofcontrol rods in nuclear fission reactors. One of its few new uses is incadmium telluride solar panels.
Although cadmium has no known biological function in higher organisms, a cadmium-dependentcarbonic anhydrase has been found in marinediatoms.
Cadmium is a soft,malleable,ductile, silvery-whitedivalent metal. It is similar in many respects to zinc but formscomplex compounds.[11] Unlike most other metals, cadmium is resistant tocorrosion and is used as a protectiveplate on other metals. As a bulk metal, cadmium isinsoluble in water[12] and is notflammable; however, in its powdered form it may burn and releasetoxic fumes.[13]
Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of eightisotopes. Two of them areradioactive, and three are expected todecay but have not measurably done so under laboratory conditions. The two natural radioactive isotopes are113Cd (beta decay, half-life is8.04×1015 y) and116Cd (double beta decay, half-life is2.69×1019 y). The other three are106Cd,108Cd (bothdouble electron capture), and114Cd (double beta decay); only lower limits on these half-lives have been determined. At least three isotopes –110Cd,111Cd, and112Cd – are stable. Among the isotopes that do not occur naturally, the most long-lived are109Cd with a half-life of 461.3 days, and115Cd with a half-life of 53.46 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than 7 hours, and the majority have half-lives of less than 5 minutes. Cadmium has 8 knownmeta states, with the most stable being113mCd (t1⁄2 = 13.9 years),115mCd (t1⁄2 = 44.6 days), and117mCd (t1⁄2 = 3.44 hours).[16]
The cadmium-113 total cross section clearly showing the cadmium cut-off
One isotope of cadmium,113Cd,absorbs neutrons with high selectivity: With very high probability, neutrons with energy below thecadmium cut-off will be absorbed; those higher than the cut-off will be transmitted. The cadmium cut-off is about 0.5 eV, and neutrons below that level are deemedslow neutrons, distinct from intermediate andfast neutrons.[17]
Cadmium (Latincadmia,Greekκαδμεία meaning "calamine", a cadmium-bearing mixture of minerals that was named after the Greek mythological character Κάδμος,Cadmus, the founder ofThebes) wasdiscovered in contaminated zinc compounds sold in pharmacies in Germany[18] in 1817 byFriedrich Stromeyer.[19]Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann simultaneously investigated the discoloration in zinc oxide and found an impurity, first suspected to bearsenic, because of the yellow precipitate withhydrogen sulfide. Additionally Stromeyer discovered that one supplier sold zinc carbonate instead of zinc oxide.[20] Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity inzinc carbonate (calamine), and, for 100 years, Germany remained the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine, because it was found in this zinc ore. Stromeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not. He was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal byroasting and reducing thesulfide. The potential for cadmium yellow as pigment was recognized in the 1840s, but the early scarcity of cadmium limited this application.[21][22][23]
After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s, the major application of cadmium was the coating of iron and steel to prevent corrosion; in 1944, 62% and in 1956, 59% of the cadmium in the United States was used forplating.[20][28] In 1956, 24% of the cadmium in the United States was used for a second application in red, orange and yellow pigments from sulfides and selenides of cadmium.[28]
The stabilizing effect of cadmium chemicals like the carboxylates cadmium laurate and cadmium stearate onPVC led to an increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s. The demand for cadmium in pigments, coatings, stabilizers, and alloys declined as a result of environmental and health regulations in the 1980s and 1990s; in 2006, only 7% of total cadmium consumption was used for plating, and only 10% was used for pigments.[20]At the same time, these decreases in consumption were compensated by a growing demand for cadmium for nickel–cadmium batteries, which accounted for 81% of the cadmium consumption in the United States in 2006.[29]
Cadmium makes up about 0.1 ppm ofEarth's crust and is the 65th most abundant element.[30] It is much rarer than zinc, which makes up about 65 ppm.[31] No significant deposits of cadmium-containing ores are known. The only cadmiummineral of importance,greenockite (CdS), is nearly always associated withsphalerite (ZnS). This association is caused by geochemical similarity between zinc and cadmium, with no geological process likely to separate them. Thus, cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct of mining, smelting, and refining sulfidic ores of zinc, and, to a lesser degree,lead andcopper. Small amounts of cadmium, about 10% of consumption, are produced from secondary sources, mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap. Production in the United States began in 1907,[23] but wide use began after World War I.[32][33]
Rocks mined for phosphate fertilizers contain varying amounts of cadmium, resulting in a cadmium concentration of as much as 300 mg/kg in the fertilizers and a high cadmium content in agricultural soils.[35][36] Coal can contain significant amounts of cadmium, which ends up mostly incoal fly ash.[37]
Cadmium in soil can be absorbed by crops such as rice and cocoa. In 2002, theChinese ministry of agriculture measured that 28% of rice it sampled had excess lead and 10% had excess cadmium above limits defined by law.Consumer Reports tested 28 brands ofdark chocolate sold in the United States in 2022, and found cadmium in all of them, with 13 exceeding the California Maximum Allowable Dose level.[38]
Some plants such aswillow trees andpoplars have been found to clean both lead and cadmium from soil.[39]
Typical background concentrations of cadmium do not exceed 5 ng/m3 in the atmosphere; 2 mg/kg in soil; 1 μg/L in freshwater and 50 ng/L in seawater.[40] Concentrations of cadmium above 10 μg/L may be stable in water having low total solute concentrations andp H and can be difficult to remove by conventional water treatment processes.[41]
Cadmium is a common impurity inzinc ores, and it is most often isolated during theproduction of zinc. Some zinc ores concentrates fromzinc sulfate ores contain up to 1.4% of cadmium.[42] In the 1970s, the output of cadmium was 2.9 kilograms (6.5 lb) per ton of zinc.[42] Zincsulfide ores are roasted in the presence ofoxygen, converting the zinc sulfide to theoxide. Zinc metal is produced either bysmelting the oxide withcarbon or byelectrolysis insulfuric acid. Cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal byvacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate isprecipitated from the electrolysis solution.[33][43]
TheBritish Geological Survey reports that in 2001, China was the top producer of cadmium with almost one-sixth of the world's production, closely followed by South Korea and Japan.[44]
Cadmiumelectroplating, consuming 6% of the global production, is used in the aircraft industry to reducecorrosion of steel components.[47] This coating is passivated bychromate salts.[46] A limitation of cadmium plating ishydrogen embrittlement of high-strength steels from the electroplating process. Therefore, steel parts heat-treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa (200 ksi) should be coated by an alternative method (such as special low-embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor deposition).
Titanium embrittlement from cadmium-plated tool residues resulted in banishment of those tools (and the implementation of routine tool testing to detect cadmium contamination) in the A-12/SR-71, U-2, and subsequent aircraft programs that use titanium.[51]
Cadmium is used in thecontrol rods of nuclear reactors, acting as a very effectiveneutron poison to controlneutron flux innuclear fission.[47] When cadmium rods are inserted in the core of a nuclear reactor, cadmium absorbs neutrons, preventing them from creating additional fission events, thus controlling the amount of reactivity. Thepressurized water reactor designed byWestinghouse Electric Company uses an alloy consisting of 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.[47]
QLED TVs have been starting to include cadmium in construction. Some companies have been looking to reduce the environmental impact of human exposure and pollution of the material in televisions during production.[52]
Complexes based on cadmium and other heavy metals have potential for the treatment of cancer, but their use is often limited due to toxic side effects.[53]
Cadmium oxide was used in black and white television phosphors and in the blue and green phosphors of color television cathode ray tubes.[54]Cadmium sulfide (CdS) is used as a photoconductive surface coating for photocopier drums.[55]
Cadmium sulfide
Various cadmium salts are used in paint pigments, with CdS as ayellow pigment being the most common.Cadmium selenide is a red pigment, commonly calledcadmium red. To painters who work with the pigment, cadmium provides the most brilliant and durable yellows, oranges, and reds – so much so that during production, these colors are significantly toned down before they are ground with oils and binders or blended intowatercolors,gouaches,acrylics, and other paint and pigment formulations. Because these pigments are potentially toxic, for safety users normally use abarrier cream on the hands to prevent absorption through the skin[45] even though the amount of cadmium absorbed into the body through the skin is reported to be less than 1%.[13]
InPVC, cadmium was used as heat, light, and weathering stabilizers.[47][56] Currently, cadmium stabilizers have been completely replaced with barium-zinc, calcium-zinc and organo-tin stabilizers. Cadmium is used in many kinds ofsolder and bearing alloys, because it has a lowcoefficient of friction and fatigue resistance.[47] It is also found in some of the lowest-meltingalloys, such asWood's metal.[57]
Violet light from ahelium cadmium metal vaporlaser. The highlymonochromatic color arises from the 441.563 nm transitionline of cadmium.
Helium–cadmium lasers are a common source of blue or ultraviolet laser light. Lasers at wavelengths of 325, 354 and 442 nm are made using thisgain medium; some models can switch between these wavelengths. They are notably used influorescence microscopy as well as various laboratory uses requiring laser light at these wavelengths.[58][59]
Cadmium selenidequantum dots emit brightluminescence under UV excitation (He–Cd laser, for example). The color of this luminescence can be green, yellow or red depending on the particle size. Colloidal solutions of those particles are used for imaging of biological tissues and solutions with afluorescence microscope.[60]
Cadmium-selective sensors based on thefluorophoreBODIPY have been developed for imaging and sensing of cadmium in cells.[62] One powerful method for monitoring cadmium in aqueous environments involveselectrochemistry. By employing aself-assembled monolayer one can obtain a cadmium selective electrode with appt-level sensitivity.[63]
In August 2025, within the course of a joint project with the European Commission monitoring online marketplaces such asTemu,AliExpress andShein, the Latvian Consumer Rights Protection Centre, while testing a selection of best-selling jewelry goods, discovered extreme quantities of cadmium in 60% of the tested products.[64] Some of the items were found to consist mostly of cadmium, at a purity of 80% or higher, in one case —a ring from AliExpressshaped like a snake — an impressive 92% cadmium alloy,[65] evidencing that there is at least one jewelry manufacturer that has been using cadmium at some point as the primary material for its products and may still be doing so.
Cadmium has no known function in higher organisms, and is toxic.[66] Cadmium is considered an environmental pollutant hazardous to living organisms.[67] A cadmium-dependentcarbonic anhydrase has been found in some marinediatoms,[68] which live in environments with low zinc concentrations.[69]
Exposure to cadmium leads to raised levels in the blood cells for a number of months.In vertebrates cadmium is preferentially absorbed in the kidneys but also in the liver and bones. Up to about 30 mg of cadmium is commonly inhaled throughout human childhood and adolescence.[70]Cadmium is eliminated from the body in very small amounts and mainly through urine resulting in a biological half-life of 20 to 40 years.[71]
Individuals and organizations have been reviewing cadmium's bioinorganic aspects for its toxicity.[79] The most dangerous form of occupational exposure to cadmium is inhalation of fine dust and fumes, or ingestion of highly soluble cadmium compounds.[20] Inhalation of cadmium fumes can result initially inmetal fume fever, but may progress to chemicalpneumonitis,pulmonary edema, necrosis and death.[80]
Cadmium is also an environmental hazard. Human exposure is primarily from fossil fuel combustion, phosphate fertilizers, natural sources, iron and steel production, cement production and related activities, nonferrous metals production, and municipal solid waste incineration.[20] Other sources of cadmium include bread, root crops, and vegetables.[81]
Jinzū River area, which was contaminated with cadmium
There have been a few instances of general population poisoning as the result of long-term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food and water. Research into an estrogen mimicry that may induce breast cancer is ongoing, as of 2012[update].[81] In the decades leading up toWorld War II, mining operations contaminated theJinzū River in Japan with cadmium and traces of other toxic metals. As a consequence, cadmium accumulated in the rice crops along the riverbanks downstream of the mines. Some members of the local agricultural communities consumed the contaminated rice and developeditai-itai disease and renal abnormalities, includingproteinuria andglucosuria.[82] The victims of this poisoning were almost exclusively post-menopausal women with low iron and low body stores of other minerals. Similar general population cadmium exposures in other parts of the world have not resulted in the same health problems because the populations maintained sufficient iron and other mineral levels. Thus, although cadmium is a major factor in the itai-itai disease in Japan, most researchers have concluded that it was one of several factors.[20]
Cadmium is one of ten substances banned by the European Union'sRestriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive, which regulates hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, but allows for certain exemptions and exclusions from the scope of the law.[83]
The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified cadmium and cadmium compounds as carcinogenic to humans.[84] Although occupational exposure to cadmium is linked to lung and prostate cancer, there is still uncertainty about the carcinogenicity of cadmium in low environmental exposure. Recent data from epidemiological studies suggest that intake of cadmium through diet is associated with a higher risk of endometrial, breast, and prostate cancer as well as with osteoporosis in humans.[85][86][87][88] A recent study has demonstrated that endometrial tissue is characterized by higher levels of cadmium in current and former smoking females.[89]
Cadmium exposure is associated with a large number of illnesses including kidney disease,[90] early atherosclerosis, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases.[91] Although studies show a significant correlation between cadmium exposure and occurrence of disease in human populations, a molecular mechanism has not yet been identified. One hypothesis holds that cadmium is anendocrine disruptor and some experimental studies have shown that it can interact with differenthormonal signaling pathways. For example, cadmium can bind to theestrogen receptor alpha,[92][93] and affect signal transduction along theestrogen andMAPK signaling pathways at low doses.[94][95][96]
Thetobacco plant absorbs and accumulatesheavy metals such as cadmium from the surrounding soil into its leaves. Following tobacco smoke inhalation, these are readily absorbed into the body of users.[97] Tobacco smoking is the most important single source of cadmium exposure in the general population. An estimated 10% of the cadmium content of a cigarette is inhaled through smoking. Absorption of cadmium through the lungs is more effective than through the gut. As much as 50% of the cadmium inhaled in cigarette smoke may be absorbed.[98]On average, cadmium concentrations in the blood of smokers is 4 to 5 times greater than non-smokers and in the kidney, 2–3 times greater than in non-smokers. Despite the high cadmium content in cigarette smoke, there seems to be little exposure to cadmium frompassive smoking.[99]
In a non-smoking population, food accounts for around 90% of cadmium uptake.[100] High quantities of cadmium can be found incrustaceans,mollusks,offal,frog legs,cocoa solids, bitter and semi-bitterchocolate,seaweed,fungi andalgae products. However, grains, vegetables, and starchy roots andtubers are consumed in much greater quantity in the U.S., and are the source of the greatest dietary exposure there.[101]
Most plants bio-accumulate metal toxins such as cadmium and when composted to form organic fertilizers, yield a product that often can contain high amounts (e.g., over 0.5 mg) of metal toxins for every kilogram of fertilizer. Fertilizers made fromanimal dung (e.g., cow dung) or urban waste can contain similar amounts of cadmium. The cadmium added to the soil fromfertilizers (rock phosphates or organic fertilizers) become bio-available and toxic only if thesoil pH is low (i.e., acidic soils). In the European Union, an analysis of almost 22,000topsoil samples with LUCAS survey concluded that 5.5% of samples have concentrations higher than 1 mg kg−1.[102]
Zinc, copper, calcium, and iron ions, and selenium with vitamin C are used to treat cadmium intoxication, although it is not easily reversed.[90]
Because of the adverse effects of cadmium on the environment and human health, the supply and use of cadmium is restricted in Europe under theREACH Regulation.
The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain specifies that 2.5 μg/kg body weight is a tolerable weekly intake for humans.[101] The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives has declared 7 μg/kg body weight to be the provisional tolerable weekly intake level.[103] The state ofCalifornia requires a food label to carry a warning about potential exposure to cadmium on products such as cocoa powder.[104] The European Commission has put in place the EU regulation (2019/1009) on fertilizing products (EU, 2019), adopted in June 2019 and fully applicable as of July 2022. It sets a Cd limit value in phosphate fertilizers to 60 mg kg−1 ofP2O5.
In May 2006, a sale of the seats fromArsenal F.C.'s old stadium,Highbury in London, England was cancelled when the seats were discovered to contain trace amounts of cadmium.[107] Reports of high levels of cadmium use in children's jewelry in 2010 led to a USConsumer Product Safety Commission investigation.[108] The U.S. CPSC issued specific recall notices for cadmium content in jewelry sold byClaire's[109] andWal-Mart[110] stores.
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