TheCaddoan Mississippian culture was a prehistoricNative American culture considered by archaeologists as a variant of theMississippian culture.[1] The Caddoan Mississippians covered a large territory, including what is now EasternOklahoma, WesternArkansas, NortheastTexas, SouthwestMissouri and NorthwestLouisiana of the United States.
Archaeological evidence has established that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present. The speakers ofCaddo and relatedCaddoan languages in prehistoric times and at first European contact have been proved to be the direct ancestors of the modernCaddo Nation of Oklahoma.[2]
The Caddoan Mississippians are thought to be descendants ofWoodland period groups, theFourche Maline culture andMossy Grove culture peoples who were living in the area around 200 BCE to 800 CE.[3] They were linked to other peoples across much of theEastern Woodlands through expansivetrade networks. During this time period, pottery making was introduced to them by peoples to their East, and by 500 CE the bow and arrow from peoples of the Southwest.
By 800 CE early Caddoan society began to coalesce into one of the earlier Mississippian cultures. Some villages began to gain prominence as ritual centers. Workers were organized to build earthworkplatform mounds, often used for temples, in addition to building elite residences and constructions. The mounds were arranged around large, constructed, open and levelplazas. These were usually kept swept clean and were often used for ceremonial occasions involving large groups of people. As complex religious and social ideas developed, some people and family lineages gained prominence over others. This hierarchical structure is marked in the archaeological record by the appearance of large tombs with exotic grave offerings of obvious symbols of authority and prestige.[3]
By 1000 CE a society now known as "Caddoan" had emerged. This included the increased prominence of ritual centers and the development of a more stratified social hierarchy, with some lineage and kin groups exerting more control over the community. The tomb burials of people thought to be leaders were accompanied by elaborate grave goods, as noted above. In addition, there were sacrificial "retainer" deaths and burials of both family members and followers at the death of such leaders.[3]
Major sites such asSpiro and theBattle Mound Site were constructed in theArkansas River Valley and theRed River Valley, respectively. As the largest and most fertile areas in the Caddoan region, these areas could support the most productive maize agriculture. Agricultural surpluses supported the growth of the dense populations of such major centers.[4] By 1200 CE, the numerous villages, hamlets, and farmsteads established throughout the Caddo world had begun extensivemaize agriculture.[3] The Caddoans also developed a distinct type of pottery making. It was described in 1540 by members of theHernando de Soto expedition as some of the finest they had seen, even in their homeland of Spain.
Since the late 20th century, recent excavations have revealed more cultural diversity within the region than had been expected by scholars, particularly in sites along the Arkansas River. Caddoan Mississippian towns had a more irregular layout of earthen mounds and associated villages than did towns in the Middle Mississippian heartland to the East, along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. They also lacked the woodenpalisade defensive fortifications often found in the major Middle Mississippian towns.
Living on the western edge of the Mississippian world, the Caddoans may have faced fewer military threats from other peoples. Their societies may also have had a somewhat lower level ofsocial stratification. Their location at the western edge of the Eastern Woodlands may account for these differences. Because the climate west of the woodlands was drier, it hindered maize production and related populations. The lower population on the plains to the West may have meant the Caddoans did not have to compete with many neighboring chiefdoms.[4]
But Caddoan populations peaked around 1400 CE, for reasons that are still unclear. After this point, many ritual centers begin to decline in population. A more dispersed settlement system developed, with the bulk of the people living on scattered homesteads and small farms rather than in large villages. The earlier broad cultural unity of the area also began to break down, with many distinct local variations developing.[3]
Caddoan Mississippian peoples were connected to the larger Mississippian world to the East and other cultures to the Southwest by trade networks that spanned the North American continent. Artifacts found in "The Great Mortuary" (Craig Mound) at the Spiro site included coloredflint from New Mexico, copper from theGreat Lakes area, conch (orlightning whelk) shells from theGulf Coast, andmica from the Carolinas.[5] Other materials from trade included wood,basketry, woven fabric, lace, fur, feathers, and carvedstone statues. Some artifacts came from as far away asCahokia in present-dayIllinois,Etowah andOcmulgee inGeorgia, andMoundville inAlabama. Many featured the elaborate symbolism of theSoutheastern Ceremonial Complex, a multiregional and pan-linguistic trade and religious network.
Archaeological finds, as well as later Spanish records, also indicate that Caddoan peoples had contact with southwestern groups such as theJumanos andPuebloans, with whom they traded forturquoise and cotton fabrics.[6]
The Spiro site is the only Mississippian site where an artifact fromMesoamerica has been found. This is a piece of blackobsidian fromMexico, which likely reached this site through Caddoan Mississippian trade with peoples to the Southwest.[7] Using these valued materials, Mississippian artists created exquisite works of art expressing theircultural identity and their complex spiritual beliefs.
The Caddoan Mississippians were speakers of many Caddoan languages.[2] The Caddoan languages once had a broad geographic distribution, but many are now extinct. The modern languages in the Caddoan family includeCaddo andPawnee, which were spoken by historic tribes of the area. Both are now spoken mainly by tribal elders.
| Site | Image | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Battle Mound Site | .jpg) | Located inLafayette County, Arkansas in the Great Bend region of the Red River basin and has the largestmound of the Caddoan Mississippian culture |
| Belcher Mound Site | Located inCaddo Parish, Louisiana[8] in the Red River Valley 20 miles north ofShreveport[9] and about one-half mile east of the town ofBelcher, Louisiana[10] | |
| Bluffton Mound Site | Located inYell County, Arkansas on theFourche La Fave River.[11] | |
| Caddoan Mounds State Historic Site |  | Also known as the George C. Davis Site (41CE19), located inCherokee County, Texas 26 miles west ofNacogdoches, in thePiney Woods region of east Texas.Texas State Highway 21 passes nearby and intersects withU.S. Route 69. |
| Gahagan Mounds Site | Located inRed River Parish, Louisiana[12] in the Red River Valley | |
| Spiro Mounds |  | One of the best-studied archaeological centers of Mississippian culture; located in Eastern Oklahoma inLe Flore County near the modern town ofSpiro |
| Crenshaw Mounds | Multiple mound site in Miller County, Arkansas | |
| Nakuukuwidish | Saltmaking site near DeQueen, Sevier County, Arkansas | |
| Hardman | Saltmaking site near Arkadelphia, Clark County, Arkansas | |
| Lockesburg Mounds | Major mound site in the Little River Region, east of DeQueen, Sevier County, Arkansas | |
| Hatchel Mound | Former mound site in Bowie County, Texas, believed to be the mound referenced in the Teran Map | |
| Mineral Springs | Mound group near Mineral Springs, Howard County, Arkansas |
When the SpanishconquistadorHernando de Soto led an expedition into the southeastern region of North America in the 1540s, his partyencountered Native American groups recorded as theNaguatex,Nishone,Hacanac, andNondacao. These names are now believed to have referred toCaddo villages.
It is estimated that in 1520, the many tribes of people numbered about 250,000.[13] Over the next 250 years the population of these Caddoan-speaking peoples was severely reduced by epidemics ofinfectious diseases inadvertently brought by Spanish and French colonists and spread by indigenous trading networks. Sometime after the coming of the Europeans, the Caddo organized into three confederacies—theNatchitoches,Hasinai, and theKadohadacho. All Caddoans were linked together by a common language.[citation needed]
In the early 19th century, under theIndian Removal Act the United States forced the Caddo to cede their lands and move toIndian Territory. European Americans were eager to settle in the fertile river valleys of their territory. Later they were required to accept allotment of their communal lands, prior to the admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1907.
The Caddo Nation of Oklahoma (previously known as the Caddo Tribe of Oklahoma) reorganized and set up a constitutional government in the 20th century and is afederally recognized tribe. A tribal constitution provides for an elected tribal council of eight members with a chairperson. The tribe is based inBinger, Oklahoma.[14] The tribal complex, dance grounds, and the Caddo Heritage Museum are located south of Binger.
In 2008, a total of 5000 people were enrolled in the tribe, and 2500 of these live in the state of Oklahoma. The tribe operates its own housing authority and issues its own tribal vehicle tags.[15] They maintain administrative centers, dance grounds, several community centers, and an activeNAGPRA office.
The Caddo have established several programs to invigorate Caddo traditions. The tribe sponsors a summer culture camp for children.[16] The Hasinai Society[17] and Caddo Culture Club.[18] Both keep Caddo songs and dances alive. The Kiwat Hasinay Foundation is dedicated to preserving the Caddo language.[19]
| Middle Mississippian |
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| South Appalachian Mississippian |
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| Fort Walton culture | |||||||||||
| Pensacola culture | |||||||||||
| Plaquemine Mississippian | |||||||||||
| Caddoan Mississippian | |||||||||||
| Upper Mississippian cultures |
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| Culture |
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