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Carbon dioxide is achemical compound with thechemical formulaCO₂. It is made up ofmolecules that each have onecarbon atomcovalently double bonded to twooxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature and at normally-encountered concentrations it is odorless. As the source of carbon in thecarbon cycle, atmospheric CO₂ is the primary carbon source for life on Earth. In the air, carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but absorbsinfrared radiation, acting as agreenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide is soluble in water and is found ingroundwater,lakes,ice caps, andseawater.

It is atrace gas in Earth's atmosphere at 421 parts per million (ppm),^[a] or about 0.042% (as of May 2022) having risen from pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm or about 0.028%.^[10]^[11] Burningfossil fuels is the main cause of these increased CO₂ concentrations, which are the primary cause ofclimate change.^[12]

Itsconcentration in Earth's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in thePrecambrian was regulated by organisms and geological features.Plants,algae andcyanobacteria useenergy fromsunlight to synthesizecarbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in a process calledphotosynthesis, which produces oxygen as a waste product.^[13] In turn, oxygen is consumed and CO₂ is released as waste by allaerobic organisms when they metabolizeorganic compounds to produce energy byrespiration.^[14] CO₂ is released from organic materials when theydecay or combust, such as in forest fires. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it formscarbonate and mainlybicarbonate (HCO−3), which causesocean acidification asatmospheric CO₂ levels increase.^[15]

Carbon dioxide is 53% more dense than dry air, but is long lived and thoroughly mixes in the atmosphere. About half of excess CO₂ emissions to the atmosphere are absorbed byland and oceancarbon sinks.^[16] These sinks can become saturated and are volatile, as decay andwildfires result in the CO₂ being released back into the atmosphere.^[17] CO₂, or the carbon it holds, is eventuallysequestered (stored for the long term) in rocks and organic deposits likecoal,petroleum andnatural gas.

Nearly all CO₂ produced by humans goes into the atmosphere. Less than 1% of CO₂ produced annually is put to commercial use, mostly in the fertilizer industry and in the oil and gas industry forenhanced oil recovery. Other commercial applications include food and beverage production, metal fabrication, cooling, fire suppression and stimulating plant growth in greenhouses.^[18]^: 3

Chemical and physical properties

Structure, bonding and molecular vibrations

Thesymmetry of a carbon dioxide molecule is linear andcentrosymmetric at its equilibrium geometry. Thelength of thecarbon–oxygen bond in carbon dioxide is 116.3 pm, noticeably shorter than the roughly 140 pm length of a typical single C–O bond, and shorter than most other C–O multiply bondedfunctional groups such ascarbonyls.^[19] Since it is centrosymmetric, the molecule has noelectric dipole moment.

Stretching and bending oscillations of the CO₂ molecule. Upper left: symmetric stretching. Upper right: antisymmetric stretching. Lower line: degenerate pair of bending modes.

As a linear triatomic molecule, CO₂ has fourvibrational modes as shown in the diagram. In the symmetric and the antisymmetric stretching modes, the atoms move along the axis of the molecule. There are two bending modes, which aredegenerate, meaning that they have the same frequency and same energy, because of the symmetry of the molecule. When a molecule touches a surface or touches another molecule, the two bending modes can differ in frequency because the interaction is different for the two modes. Some of the vibrational modes are observed in theinfrared (IR) spectrum: the antisymmetric stretching mode atwavenumber 2349 cm⁻¹ (wavelength 4.25 μm) and the degenerate pair of bending modes at 667 cm⁻¹ (wavelength 15.0 μm). The symmetric stretching mode does not create an electric dipole so is not observed in IR spectroscopy, but it is detected inRaman spectroscopy at 1388 cm⁻¹ (wavelength 7.20 μm), with aFermi resonance doublet at 1285 cm⁻¹.^[20]

In the gas phase, carbon dioxide molecules undergo significant vibrational motions and do not keep a fixed structure. However, in aCoulomb explosion imaging experiment, an instantaneous image of the molecular structure can be deduced. Such an experiment^[21] has been performed for carbon dioxide. The result of this experiment, and the conclusion of theoretical calculations^[22] based on anab initio potential energy surface of the molecule, is that none of the molecules in the gas phase are ever exactly linear. This counter-intuitive result is trivially due to the fact that the nuclear motionvolume element vanishes for linear geometries.^[22] This is so for all molecules exceptdiatomic molecules.

In aqueous solution

Chemical reactions

CO₂ is a potentelectrophile having an electrophilic reactivity that is comparable tobenzaldehyde or strongly electrophilicα,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds. However, unlike electrophiles of similar reactivity, the reactions of nucleophiles with CO₂ are thermodynamically less favored and are often found to be highly reversible.^[24] The reversible reaction of carbon dioxide withamines to makecarbamates is used in CO₂ scrubbers and has been suggested as a possible starting point for carbon capture and storage byamine gas treating.Only very strong nucleophiles, like thecarbanions provided byGrignard reagents andorganolithium compounds react with CO₂ to givecarboxylates:

MR + CO₂ → RCO₂M

where M =Li orMg Br and R =alkyl oraryl.

Inmetal carbon dioxide complexes, CO₂ serves as aligand, which can facilitate the conversion of CO₂ to other chemicals.^[25]

The reduction of CO₂ toCO is ordinarily a difficult and slow reaction:

CO₂ + 2 e⁻ + 2 H⁺ → CO + H₂O

Theredox potential for this reaction near pH 7 is about −0.53 Vversus thestandard hydrogen electrode. The nickel-containing enzymecarbon monoxide dehydrogenase catalyses this process.^[26]

Photoautotrophs (i.e.plants andcyanobacteria) use the energy contained in sunlight tophotosynthesize simplesugars from CO₂ absorbed from the air and water:

n CO₂ +n H₂O → (CH₂O)_n +n O₂

Physical properties

Further information:Carbon dioxide data

Pellets of "dry ice", a common form of solid carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is colorless. At low concentrations, the gas is odorless; however, at sufficiently high concentrations, it has a sharp, acidic odor.^[1] Atstandard temperature and pressure, the density of carbon dioxide is around 1.98 kg/m³, about 1.53 times that ofair.^[27]

Carbon dioxide has no liquid state at pressures below 0.51795(10)MPa^[2] (5.11177(99)atm). At a pressure of 1 atm (0.101325 MPa), the gasdeposits directly to a solid at temperatures below 194.6855(30) K^[2] (−78.4645(30) °C) and the solidsublimes directly to a gas above this temperature. In its solid state, carbon dioxide is commonly calleddry ice.

Pressure–temperaturephase diagram of carbon dioxide. Note that it is a log-lin chart.

Liquid carbon dioxide forms only atpressures above 0.51795(10) MPa^[2] (5.11177(99) atm); thetriple point of carbon dioxide is 216.592(3) K^[2] (−56.558(3) °C) at 0.51795(10) MPa^[2] (5.11177(99) atm) (see phase diagram). Thecritical point is 304.128(15) K^[2] (30.978(15) °C) at 7.3773(30) MPa^[2] (72.808(30) atm). Another form of solid carbon dioxide observed at high pressure is anamorphous glass-like solid.^[28] This form of glass, calledcarbonia, is produced bysupercooling heated CO₂ at extreme pressures (40–48 GPa, or about 400,000 atmospheres) in adiamond anvil. This discovery confirmed the theory that carbon dioxide could exist in a glass state similar to other members of its elemental family, likesilicon dioxide (silica glass) andgermanium dioxide. Unlike silica and germania glasses, however, carbonia glass is not stable at normal pressures and reverts to gas when pressure is released.

At temperatures and pressures above the critical point, carbon dioxide behaves as asupercritical fluid known assupercritical carbon dioxide.

Table of thermal and physical properties of saturated liquid carbon dioxide:^[29]^[30]

Temperature (°C)	Density (kg/m³)	Specific heat (kJ/(kg⋅K))	Kinematic viscosity (m²/s)	Thermal conductivity (W/(m⋅K))	Thermal diffusivity (m²/s)	Prandtl Number
−50	1156.34	1.84	1.19 × 10⁻⁷	0.0855	4.02 × 10⁻⁸	2.96
−40	1117.77	1.88	1.18 × 10⁻⁷	0.1011	4.81 × 10⁻⁸	2.46
−30	1076.76	1.97	1.17 × 10⁻⁷	0.1116	5.27 × 10⁻⁸	2.22
−20	1032.39	2.05	1.15 × 10⁻⁷	0.1151	5.45 × 10⁻⁸	2.12
−10	983.38	2.18	1.13 × 10⁻⁷	0.1099	5.13 × 10⁻⁸	2.2
0	926.99	2.47	1.08 × 10⁻⁷	0.1045	4.58 × 10⁻⁸	2.38
10	860.03	3.14	1.01 × 10⁻⁷	0.0971	3.61 × 10⁻⁸	2.8
20	772.57	5	9.10 × 10⁻⁸	0.0872	2.22 × 10⁻⁸	4.1
30	597.81	36.4	8.00 × 10⁻⁸	0.0703	0.279 × 10⁻⁸	28.7

Table of thermal and physical properties of carbon dioxide (CO₂) at atmospheric pressure:^[29]^[30]

Temperature (K)	Density (kg/m³)	Specific heat (kJ/(kg⋅°C))	Dynamic viscosity (kg/(m⋅s))	Kinematic viscosity (m²/s)	Thermal conductivity (W/(m⋅°C))	Thermal diffusivity (m²/s)	Prandtl Number
220	2.4733	0.783	1.11 × 10⁻⁵	4.49 × 10⁻⁶	0.010805	5.92 × 10⁻⁶	0.818
250	2.1657	0.804	1.26 × 10⁻⁵	5.81 × 10⁻⁶	0.012884	7.40 × 10⁻⁶	0.793
300	1.7973	0.871	1.50 × 10⁻⁵	8.32 × 10⁻⁶	0.016572	1.06 × 10⁻⁵	0.77
350	1.5362	0.9	1.72 × 10⁻⁵	1.12 × 10⁻⁵	0.02047	1.48 × 10⁻⁵	0.755
400	1.3424	0.942	1.93 × 10⁻⁵	1.44 × 10⁻⁵	0.02461	1.95 × 10⁻⁵	0.738
450	1.1918	0.98	2.13 × 10⁻⁵	1.79 × 10⁻⁵	0.02897	2.48 × 10⁻⁵	0.721
500	1.0732	1.013	2.33 × 10⁻⁵	2.17 × 10⁻⁵	0.03352	3.08 × 10⁻⁵	0.702
550	0.9739	1.047	2.51 × 10⁻⁵	2.57 × 10⁻⁵	0.03821	3.75 × 10⁻⁵	0.685
600	0.8938	1.076	2.68 × 10⁻⁵	3.00 × 10⁻⁵	0.04311	4.48 × 10⁻⁵	0.668
650	0.8143	1.1	2.88 × 10⁻⁵	3.54 × 10⁻⁵	0.0445	4.97 × 10⁻⁵	0.712
700	0.7564	1.13	3.05 × 10⁻⁵	4.03 × 10⁻⁵	0.0481	5.63 × 10⁻⁵	0.717
750	0.7057	1.15	3.21 × 10⁻⁵	4.55 × 10⁻⁵	0.0517	6.37 × 10⁻⁵	0.714
800	0.6614	1.17	3.37 × 10⁻⁵	5.10 × 10⁻⁵	0.0551	7.12 × 10⁻⁵	0.716

Biological role

Carbon dioxide is an end product ofcellular respiration in organisms that obtain energy by breaking down sugars, fats andamino acids with oxygen as part of theirmetabolism. This includes all plants, algae and animals andaerobic fungi and bacteria. Invertebrates, the carbon dioxide travels in the blood from the body's tissues to the skin (e.g.,amphibians) or the gills (e.g.,fish), from where it dissolves in the water, or to the lungs from where it is exhaled. During active photosynthesis,plants can absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release in respiration.

Photosynthesis and carbon fixation

Overview of theCalvin cycle and carbon fixation

Carbon fixation is a biochemical process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated by plants, algae and cyanobacteria intoenergy-rich organic molecules such asglucose, thus creating their own food by photosynthesis. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide andwater to produce sugars from which otherorganic compounds can be constructed, andoxygen is produced as a by-product.

Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase, commonly abbreviated to RuBisCO, is theenzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation, the production of two molecules of3-phosphoglycerate from CO₂ andribulose bisphosphate, as shown in the diagram at left.

RuBisCO is thought to be the single most abundant protein on Earth.^[31]

Phototrophs use the products of their photosynthesis as internal food sources and as raw material for thebiosynthesis of more complex organic molecules, such aspolysaccharides,nucleic acids, and proteins. These are used for their own growth, and also as the basis of thefood chains and webs that feed other organisms, including animals such as ourselves. Some important phototrophs, thecoccolithophores synthesise hardcalcium carbonate scales.^[32] A globally significant species of coccolithophore isEmiliania huxleyi whosecalcite scales have formed the basis of manysedimentary rocks such aslimestone, where what was previously atmospheric carbon can remain fixed for geological timescales.

Overview of photosynthesis and respiration. Carbon dioxide (at right), together with water, form oxygen and organic compounds (at left) byphotosynthesis (green), which can berespired (red) to water and CO₂.

Plants can grow as much as 50% faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm CO₂ when compared with ambient conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and no limitation on other nutrients.^[33] Elevated CO₂ levels cause increased growth reflected in the harvestable yield of crops, with wheat, rice and soybean all showing increases in yield of 12–14% under elevated CO₂ in FACE experiments.^[34]^[35]

Increased atmospheric CO₂ concentrations result in fewer stomata developing on plants^[36] which leads to reduced water usage and increasedwater-use efficiency.^[37] Studies usingFACE have shown that CO₂ enrichment leads to decreased concentrations of micronutrients in crop plants.^[38] This may have knock-on effects on other parts ofecosystems as herbivores will need to eat more food to gain the same amount of protein.^[39]

The concentration of secondarymetabolites such asphenylpropanoids andflavonoids can also be altered in plants exposed to high concentrations of CO₂.^[40]^[41]

Plants also emit CO₂ during respiration, and so the majority of plants and algae, which useC3 photosynthesis, are only net absorbers during the day. Though a growing forest will absorb many tons of CO₂ each year, a mature forest will produce as much CO₂ from respiration and decomposition of dead specimens (e.g., fallen branches) as is used in photosynthesis in growing plants.^[42] Contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral, mature forests can continue to accumulate carbon^[43] and remain valuablecarbon sinks, helping to maintain the carbon balance of Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved CO₂ in the upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of CO₂ from the atmosphere.^[44]

Toxicity

Below 1%

There are few studies of the health effects of long-term continuous CO₂ exposure on humans and animals at levels below 1%. Occupational CO₂ exposure limits have been set in the United States at 0.5% (5000 ppm) for an eight-hour period.^[54] At this CO₂ concentration,International Space Station crew experienced headaches, lethargy, mental slowness, emotional irritation, and sleep disruption.^[55] Studies in animals at 0.5% CO₂ have demonstrated kidney calcification and bone loss after eight weeks of exposure.^[56] A study of humans exposed in 2.5 hour sessions demonstrated significant negative effects on cognitive abilities at concentrations as low as 0.1% (1000 ppm) CO₂ likely due to CO₂ induced increases in cerebral blood flow.^[52] Another study observed a decline in basic activity level and information usage at 1000 ppm, when compared to 500 ppm.^[53]

However a review of the literature found that a reliable subset of studies on the phenomenon of carbon dioxide induced cognitive impairment to only show a small effect on high-level decision making (for concentrations below 5000 ppm). Most of the studies were confounded by inadequate study designs, environmental comfort, uncertainties in exposure doses and differing cognitive assessments used.^[57] Similarly a study on the effects of the concentration of CO₂ in motorcycle helmets has been criticized for having dubious methodology in not noting the self-reports of motorcycle riders and taking measurements using mannequins. Further when normal motorcycle conditions were achieved (such as highway or city speeds) or the visor was raised the concentration of CO₂ declined to safe levels (0.2%).^[58]^[59]

Typical CO₂ concentration effects
Concentration	Note
280 ppm	Pre-industrial levels
421 ppm	Current (May 2022) levels
~1121 ppm	ASHRAE recommendation for indoor air^[60]
5,000 ppm	USA 8h exposure limit^[54]
10,000 ppm	Cognitive impairment, Canada's long term exposure limit^[45]
10,000-20,000 ppm	Drowsiness^[48]
20,000-50,000 ppm	Headaches, sleepiness; poor concentration, loss of attention, slight nausea also possible^[54]

Ventilation

Acarbon dioxide sensor that measures CO₂ concentration using anondispersive infrared sensor

Poor ventilation is one of the main causes of excessive CO₂ concentrations in closed spaces, leading to poorindoor air quality. Carbon dioxide differential above outdoor concentrations at steady state conditions (when the occupancy and ventilation system operation are sufficiently long that CO₂ concentration has stabilized) are sometimes used to estimate ventilation rates per person.^[61] Higher CO₂ concentrations are associated with occupant health, comfort and performance degradation.^[62]^[63]ASHRAE Standard 62.1–2007 ventilation rates may result in indoor concentrations up to 2,100 ppm above ambient outdoor conditions. Thus if the outdoor concentration is 400 ppm, indoor concentrations may reach 2,500 ppm with ventilation rates that meet this industry consensus standard. Concentrations in poorly ventilated spaces can be found even higher than this (range of 3,000 or 4,000 ppm).

Miners, who are particularly vulnerable to gas exposure due to insufficient ventilation, referred to mixtures of carbon dioxide and nitrogen as "blackdamp", "choke damp" or "stythe". Before more effective technologies were developed,miners would frequently monitor for dangerous levels of blackdamp and other gases in mine shafts by bringing a cagedcanary with them as they worked. The canary is more sensitive to asphyxiant gases than humans, and as it became unconscious would stop singing and fall off its perch. TheDavy lamp could also detect high levels of blackdamp (which sinks, and collects near the floor) by burning less brightly, whilemethane, another suffocating gas and explosion risk, would make the lamp burn more brightly.

In February 2020, three people died from suffocation at a party in Moscow when dry ice (frozen CO₂) was added to a swimming pool to cool it down.^[64] A similar accident occurred in 2018 when a woman died from CO₂ fumes emanating from the large amount of dry ice she was transporting in her car.^[65]

Indoor air

Humans spend more and more time in a confined atmosphere (around 80-90% of the time in a building or vehicle). According to the FrenchAgency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) and various actors in France, the CO₂ rate in the indoor air of buildings (linked to human or animal occupancy and the presence ofcombustion installations), weighted by air renewal, is "usually between about 350 and 2,500 ppm".^[66]

In homes, schools, nurseries and offices, there are no systematic relationships between the levels of CO₂ and other pollutants, and indoor CO₂ is statistically not a good predictor of pollutants linked to outdoor road (or air, etc.) traffic.^[67] CO₂ is the parameter that changes the fastest (with hygrometry and oxygen levels when humans or animals are gathered in a closed or poorly ventilated room). In poor countries, many open hearths are sources of CO₂ and CO emitted directly into the living environment.^[68]

Outdoor areas with elevated concentrations

Local concentrations of carbon dioxide can reach high values near strong sources, especially those that are isolated by surrounding terrain. At the Bossoleto hot spring nearRapolano Terme inTuscany, Italy, situated in a bowl-shaped depression about 100 m (330 ft) in diameter, concentrations of CO₂ rise to above 75% overnight, sufficient to kill insects and small animals. After sunrise the gas is dispersed by convection.^[69] High concentrations of CO₂ produced by disturbance of deep lake water saturated with CO₂ are thought to have caused 37 fatalities atLake Monoun,Cameroon in 1984 and 1700 casualties atLake Nyos, Cameroon in 1986.^[70]

Human physiology

Content

Reference ranges or averages forpartial pressures of carbon dioxide (abbreviatedpCO₂)
Blood compartment	(kPa)	(mm Hg)
Venous blood carbon dioxide	5.5–6.8	41–51^[71]
Alveolarpulmonary gas pressures	4.8	36
Arterial blood carbon dioxide	4.7–6.0	35–45^[71]

The body produces approximately 2.3 pounds (1.0 kg) of carbon dioxide per day per person,^[72] containing 0.63 pounds (290 g) of carbon. In humans, this carbon dioxide is carried through thevenous system and is breathed out through the lungs, resulting in lower concentrations in thearteries. The carbon dioxide content of the blood is often given as thepartial pressure, which is the pressure which carbon dioxide would have had if it alone occupied the volume.^[73] In humans, the blood carbon dioxide contents are shown in the adjacent table.

Transport in the blood

CO₂ is carried in blood in three different ways. Exact percentages vary between arterial and venous blood.

Majority (about 70% to 80%) is converted tobicarbonate ionsHCO−3 by the enzymecarbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells,^[74] by the reaction:

CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃ → H⁺ + HCO−3

5–10% is dissolved inblood plasma^[74]
5–10% is bound tohemoglobin ascarbamino compounds^[74]

Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule inred blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. However, the CO₂ bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because ofallosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO₂ decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. This is known as theHaldane Effect, and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Conversely, a rise in the partial pressure of CO₂ or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as theBohr effect.

Regulation of respiration

Carbon dioxide is one of the mediators of localautoregulation of blood supply. If its concentration is high, thecapillaries expand to allow a greater blood flow to that tissue.^[75]

Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. A person's breathing rate influences the level of CO₂ in their blood. Breathing that is too slow or shallow causesrespiratory acidosis, while breathing that is too rapid leads tohyperventilation, which can causerespiratory alkalosis.^[76]

Although the body requires oxygen for metabolism, low oxygen levels normally do not stimulate breathing. Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels. As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all (such as pure nitrogen) can lead to loss of consciousness without ever experiencingair hunger. This is especially perilous for high-altitude fighter pilots. It is also why flight attendants instruct passengers, in case of loss of cabin pressure, to apply theoxygen mask to themselves first before helping others; otherwise, one risks losing consciousness.^[74]

The respiratory centers try to maintain an arterial CO₂ pressure of 40 mmHg. With intentional hyperventilation, the CO₂ content of arterial blood may be lowered to 10–20 mmHg (the oxygen content of the blood is little affected), and the respiratory drive is diminished. This is why one can hold one's breath longer after hyperventilating than without hyperventilating. This carries the risk that unconsciousness may result before the need to breathe becomes overwhelming, which is why hyperventilation is particularly dangerous before free diving.^[77]

Concentrations and role in the environment

Atmosphere

Further information:Carbon cycle

This section is an excerpt fromCarbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere.[edit]

Atmospheric CO₂ concentration measured atMauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii from 1958 to 2023 (also called theKeeling Curve). The rise in CO₂ over that time period is clearly visible. The concentration is expressed as μmole per mole, orppm.

InEarth's atmosphere, carbon dioxide is atrace gas that plays an integral part in thegreenhouse effect,carbon cycle,photosynthesis andoceanic carbon cycle. It is one of three maingreenhouse gases in the atmosphere ofEarth. The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere reached 427ppm (0.0427%) on amolar basis in 2024, representing 3341 gigatonnes of CO₂.^[78] This is an increase of 50% since the start of theIndustrial Revolution, up from 280 ppm during the 10,000 years prior to the mid-18th century.^[79]^[80]^[81] The increaseis due to human activity.^[82]

The current increase in CO₂ concentrations is primarily driven by the burning offossil fuels.^[83] Other significant human activities that emit CO₂ includecement production,deforestation, andbiomass burning. The increase in atmospheric concentrations of CO₂ and other long-lived greenhouse gases such asmethane increase the absorption and emission of infrared radiation by the atmosphere. This has led to arise in average global temperature andocean acidification. Another direct effect is theCO₂ fertilization effect. The increase in atmospheric concentrations of CO₂ causes a range of furthereffects of climate change on the environment and human living conditions.

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. It absorbs and emitsinfrared radiation at its two infrared-active vibrational frequencies. The twowavelengths are 4.26 μm (2,347 cm⁻¹) (asymmetric stretchingvibrational mode) and 14.99 μm (667 cm⁻¹) (bending vibrational mode). CO₂ plays a significant role in influencingEarth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect.^[84] Light emission from the Earth's surface is most intense in the infrared region between 200 and 2500 cm⁻¹,^[85] as opposed to light emission from the much hotterSun which is most intense in the visible region. Absorption of infrared light at the vibrational frequencies of atmospheric CO₂ traps energy near the surface, warming the surface of Earth and its lower atmosphere. Less energy reaches the upper atmosphere, which is therefore cooler because of this absorption.^[86]

The present atmospheric concentration of CO₂ is the highest for 14 million years.^[87] Concentrations of CO₂ in the atmosphere were as high as 4,000 ppm during theCambrian period about 500 million years ago, and as low as 180 ppm during theQuaternary glaciation of the last two million years.^[79] Reconstructed temperature records for the last 420 million years indicate that atmospheric CO₂ concentrations peaked at approximately 2,000 ppm. This peak happened during theDevonian period (400 million years ago). Another peak occurred in theTriassic period (220–200 million years ago).^[88]

Oceans

Main articles:Carbon cycle andOcean acidification

Ocean acidification

Carbon dioxide dissolves in the ocean to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), bicarbonate (HCO−3), and carbonate (CO2−3). There is about fifty times as much carbon dioxide dissolved in the oceans as exists in the atmosphere. The oceans act as an enormouscarbon sink, and have taken up about a third of CO₂ emitted by human activity.^[90]

This section is an excerpt fromOcean acidification.[edit]

Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in thepH of the Earth'socean. Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05.^[91]Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are the primary cause of ocean acidification, withatmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels exceeding 422 ppm (as of 2024^[update]).^[92] CO₂ from theatmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. This chemical reaction producescarbonic acid (H₂CO₃) whichdissociates into abicarbonate ion (HCO−3) and ahydrogen ion (H⁺). The presence of free hydrogen ions (H⁺) lowers the pH of the ocean, increasingacidity (this does not mean thatseawater is acidic yet; it is stillalkaline, with a pH higher than 8).Marine calcifying organisms, such asmollusks andcorals, are especially vulnerable because they rely on calcium carbonate to build shells and skeletons.^[93]

A change in pH by 0.1 represents a 26% increase in hydrogen ion concentration in the world's oceans (the pH scale is logarithmic, so a change of one in pH units is equivalent to a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration). Sea-surface pH and carbonate saturation states vary depending on ocean depth and location. Colder and higher latitude waters are capable of absorbing more CO₂. This can cause acidity to rise, lowering the pH and carbonate saturation levels in these areas. There are several other factors that influence the atmosphere-ocean CO₂ exchange, and thus local ocean acidification. These includeocean currents andupwelling zones, proximity to large continental rivers,sea ice coverage, and atmospheric exchange withnitrogen andsulfur fromfossil fuel burning andagriculture.^[94]^[95]^[96]

Pterapod shell dissolved in seawater adjusted to anocean chemistry projected for the year 2100

This section is an excerpt fromOcean acidification § Decreased calcification in marine organisms.[edit]

Changes in ocean chemistry can have extensive direct and indirect effects on organisms and their habitats. One of the most important repercussions of increasing ocean acidity relates to the production of shells out ofcalcium carbonate (CaCO₃).^[93] This process is called calcification and is important to the biology and survival of a wide range of marine organisms. Calcification involves theprecipitation of dissolved ions into solidCaCO₃ structures, structures for many marine organisms, such ascoccolithophores,foraminifera,crustaceans,mollusks, etc. After they are formed, theseCaCO₃ structures are vulnerable todissolution unless the surrounding seawater containssaturating concentrations of carbonate ions (CO2−3).

Very little of the extra carbon dioxide that is added into the ocean remains as dissolved carbon dioxide. The majority dissociates into additional bicarbonate and free hydrogen ions. The increase in hydrogen is larger than the increase in bicarbonate,^[97] creating an imbalance in the reaction:

HCO−3 ⇌ CO2−3 + H⁺

To maintain chemical equilibrium, some of the carbonate ions already in the ocean combine with some of the hydrogen ions to make further bicarbonate. Thus the ocean's concentration of carbonate ions is reduced, removing an essential building block for marine organisms to build shells, or calcify:

Ca²⁺ + CO2−3 ⇌ CaCO₃

Hydrothermal vents

Carbon dioxide is also introduced into the oceans through hydrothermal vents. TheChampagne hydrothermal vent, found at the Northwest Eifuku volcano in theMariana Trench, produces almost pure liquid carbon dioxide, one of only two known sites in the world as of 2004, the other being in theOkinawa Trough.^[98] The finding of a submarine lake of liquid carbon dioxide in the Okinawa Trough was reported in 2006.^[99]

Sources

The burning offossil fuels for energy produces 36.8 billion tonnes of CO₂ per year as of 2023.^[100] Nearly all of this goes into the atmosphere, where approximately half is subsequently absorbed into naturalcarbon sinks.^[101] Less than 1% of CO₂ produced annually is put to commercial use.^[18]^: 3

Biological processes

Carbon dioxide is a by-product of thefermentation of sugar in thebrewing ofbeer,whisky and otheralcoholic beverages and in the production ofbioethanol.Yeast metabolizes sugar to produce CO₂ andethanol, also known as alcohol, as follows:

C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2 CO₂ + 2 CH₃CH₂OH

Allaerobic organisms produce CO₂ when they oxidizecarbohydrates,fatty acids, andproteins. The large number of reactions involved are exceedingly complex and not described easily. Refer tocellular respiration,anaerobic respiration andphotosynthesis. The equation for the respiration of glucose and othermonosaccharides is:

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂ → 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O

Anaerobic organisms decompose organic material producing methane and carbon dioxide together with traces of other compounds.^[102] Regardless of the type of organic material, the production of gases follows well definedkinetic pattern. Carbon dioxide comprises about 40–45% of the gas that emanates from decomposition in landfills (termed "landfill gas"). Most of the remaining 50–55% is methane.^[103]

Combustion

Thecombustion of allcarbon-based fuels, such asmethane (natural gas), petroleum distillates (gasoline,diesel,kerosene,propane), coal, wood and generic organic matter produces carbon dioxide and, except in the case of pure carbon, water. As an example, the chemical reaction between methane andoxygen:

CH₄ + 2 O₂ → CO₂ + 2 H₂O

Iron is reduced from its oxides withcoke in ablast furnace, producingpig iron and carbon dioxide:^[104]

Fe₂O₃ + 3 CO → 3 CO₂ + 2 Fe

By-product from hydrogen production

Carbon dioxide is a byproduct of the industrial production of hydrogen bysteam reforming and thewater gas shift reaction inammonia production. These processes begin with the reaction of water and natural gas (mainly methane).^[105]

Thermal decomposition of limestone

It is produced by thermal decomposition of limestone,CaCO₃ by heating (calcining) at about 850 °C (1,560 °F), in the manufacture ofquicklime (calcium oxide, CaO), a compound that has many industrial uses:

CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂

Acids liberate CO₂ from most metal carbonates. Consequently, it may be obtained directly from natural carbon dioxidesprings, where it is produced by the action of acidified water onlimestone ordolomite. The reaction betweenhydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk) is shown below:

CaCO₃ + 2 HCl → CaCl₂ + H₂CO₃

Thecarbonic acid (H₂CO₃) then decomposes to water and CO₂:

H₂CO₃ → CO₂ + H₂O

Such reactions are accompanied by foaming or bubbling, or both, as the gas is released. They have widespread uses in industry because they can be used to neutralize waste acid streams.

Commercial uses

Pie chart of commercial CO2 use. See caption for description. — The biggest commercial uses of CO2 are in producing urea for fertilizer and in extracting oil from the ground. Beverages, food, metal fabrication, and other uses account for 3%, 3%, 2%, and 4% of commercial CO2 use, respectively.^[106]

Around 230 Mt of CO₂ are used each year,^[107] mostly in the fertiliser industry for urea production (130 million tonnes) and in the oil and gas industry forenhanced oil recovery (70 to 80 million tonnes).^[18]^: 3 Other commercial applications include food and beverage production, metal fabrication, cooling, fire suppression and stimulating plant growth in greenhouses.^[18]^: 3

Technology exists tocapture CO₂ from industrial flue gas orfrom the air. Research is ongoing on ways to usecaptured CO₂ in products and some of these processes have been deployed commercially.^[108] However, the potential to use products is very small compared to the total volume of CO₂ that could foreseeably be captured.^[109] The vast majority of captured CO₂ is considered a waste product and sequestered in underground geologic formations.^[110]

Precursor to chemicals

This sectionneeds expansion. You can help bymaking an edit requestadding to it.(July 2014)

Fossil fuel recovery

Carbon dioxide is used inenhanced oil recovery where it is injected into or adjacent to producing oil wells, usually undersupercritical conditions, when it becomesmiscible with the oil. This approach can increase original oil recovery by reducing residual oil saturation by 7–23% additional toprimary extraction.^[114] It acts as both a pressurizing agent and, when dissolved into the undergroundcrude oil, significantly reduces its viscosity, and changing surface chemistry enabling the oil to flow more rapidly through the reservoir to the removal well.^[115]

Most CO₂ injected in CO₂-EOR projects comes from naturally occurring underground CO₂ deposits.^[116] Some CO₂ used in EOR is captured from industrial facilities such asnatural gas processing plants, usingcarbon capture technology and transported to the oilfield in pipelines.^[116]

Agriculture

Plants require carbon dioxide to conduct photosynthesis. The atmospheres of greenhouses may (if of large size, must) be enriched with additional CO₂ to sustain and increase the rate of plant growth.^[117]^[118] At very high concentrations (100 times atmospheric concentration, or greater), carbon dioxide can be toxic to animal life, so raising the concentration to 10,000 ppm (1%) or higher for several hours will eliminate pests such aswhiteflies andspider mites in a greenhouse.^[119] Some plants respond more favorably to rising carbon dioxide concentrations than others, which can lead to vegetation regime shifts likewoody plant encroachment.^[120]

Foods

Carbon dioxide is afood additive used as a propellant and acidity regulator in the food industry. It is approved for usage in the EU^[121] (listed asE number E290), US,^[122] Australia and New Zealand^[123] (listed by itsINS number 290).

A candy calledPop Rocks is pressurized with carbon dioxide gas^[124] at about 4,000 kPa (40 bar; 580 psi). When placed in the mouth, it dissolves (just like other hard candy) and releases the gas bubbles with an audible pop.

Leavening agents cause dough to rise by producing carbon dioxide.^[125]Baker's yeast produces carbon dioxide by fermentation of sugars within the dough, while chemical leaveners such asbaking powder andbaking soda release carbon dioxide when heated or if exposed toacids.

Beverages

Carbon dioxide is used to producecarbonated soft drinks andsoda water. Traditionally, the carbonation of beer and sparkling wine came about through natural fermentation, but many manufacturers carbonate these drinks with carbon dioxide recovered from the fermentation process. In the case of bottled and kegged beer, the most common method used is carbonation with recycled carbon dioxide. With the exception of Britishreal ale, draught beer is usually transferred from kegs in a cold room or cellar to dispensing taps on the bar using pressurized carbon dioxide, sometimes mixed with nitrogen.

The taste of soda water (and related taste sensations in other carbonated beverages) is an effect of the dissolved carbon dioxide rather than the bursting bubbles of the gas.Carbonic anhydrase 4 converts carbon dioxide tocarbonic acid leading to asour taste, and also the dissolved carbon dioxide induces asomatosensory response.^[126]

Winemaking

Dry ice used to preserve grapes after harvest

Carbon dioxide in the form ofdry ice is often used during thecold soak phase inwinemaking to cool clusters ofgrapes quickly after picking to help prevent spontaneousfermentation by wildyeast. The main advantage of using dry ice over water ice is that it cools the grapes without adding any additional water that might decrease the sugar concentration in thegrape must, and thus thealcohol concentration in the finished wine. Carbon dioxide is also used to create a hypoxic environment forcarbonic maceration, the process used to produceBeaujolais wine.

Carbon dioxide is sometimes used to top up wine bottles or otherstorage vessels such as barrels to prevent oxidation, though it has the problem that it can dissolve into the wine, making a previously still wine slightly fizzy. For this reason, other gases such asnitrogen orargon are preferred for this process by professional wine makers.

Stunning animals

Carbon dioxide is often used to "stun" animals before slaughter.^[127] "Stunning" may be a misnomer, as the animals are not knocked out immediately and may suffer distress.^[128]^[129]

Inert gas

Carbon dioxide is one of the most commonly used compressed gases for pneumatic (pressurized gas) systems in portable pressure tools. Carbon dioxide is also used as an atmosphere forwelding, although in the welding arc, it reacts tooxidize most metals. Use in the automotive industry is common despite significant evidence that welds made in carbon dioxide are morebrittle than those made in more inert atmospheres.^[130] When used forMIG welding, CO₂ use is sometimes referred to as MAG welding, for Metal Active Gas, as CO₂ can react at these high temperatures. It tends to produce a hotter puddle than truly inert atmospheres, improving the flow characteristics. Although, this may be due to atmospheric reactions occurring at the puddle site. This is usually the opposite of the desired effect when welding, as it tends to embrittle the site, but may not be a problem for general mild steel welding, where ultimate ductility is not a major concern.

Carbon dioxide is used in many consumer products that require pressurized gas because it is inexpensive and nonflammable, and because it undergoes a phase transition from gas to liquid at room temperature at an attainable pressure of approximately 60 bar (870 psi; 59 atm), allowing far more carbon dioxide to fit in a given container than otherwise would. Life jackets often contain canisters of pressured carbon dioxide for quick inflation.Aluminium capsules of CO₂ are also sold as supplies of compressed gas forair guns,paintball markers/guns, inflating bicycle tires, and for makingcarbonated water. High concentrations of carbon dioxide can also be used to kill pests. Liquid carbon dioxide is used insupercritical drying of some food products and technological materials, in the preparation of specimens forscanning electron microscopy^[131] and in thedecaffeination ofcoffee beans.

Fire extinguisher

Carbon dioxide can be used to extinguish flames by flooding the environment around the flame with the gas. It does not itself react to extinguish the flame, but starves the flame of oxygen by displacing it. Somefire extinguishers, especially those designed forelectrical fires, contain liquid carbon dioxide under pressure. Carbon dioxide extinguishers work well on small flammable liquid and electrical fires, but not on ordinary combustible fires, because they do not cool the burning substances significantly, and when the carbon dioxide disperses, they can catch fire upon exposure toatmospheric oxygen. They are mainly used in server rooms.^[132]

Carbon dioxide has also been widely used as an extinguishing agent in fixed fire-protection systems for local application of specific hazards and total flooding of a protected space.^[133]International Maritime Organization standards recognize carbon dioxide systems for fire protection of ship holds and engine rooms. Carbon dioxide-based fire-protection systems have been linked to several deaths, because it can cause suffocation in sufficiently high concentrations. A review of CO₂ systems identified 51 incidents between 1975 and the date of the report (2000), causing 72 deaths and 145 injuries.^[134]

Supercritical CO₂ as solvent

Liquid carbon dioxide is a goodsolvent for manylipophilic organic compounds and is used todecaffeinate coffee.^[135] Carbon dioxide has attracted attention in thepharmaceutical and other chemical processing industries as a less toxic alternative to more traditional solvents such asorganochlorides. It is also used by somedry cleaners for this reason. It is used in the preparation of someaerogels because of the properties of supercritical carbon dioxide.

Refrigerant

Comparison of the pressure–temperature phase diagrams of carbon dioxide (red) and water (blue) as a log-lin chart with phase transitions points at 1 atmosphere

Liquid and solid carbon dioxide are importantrefrigerants, especially in the food industry, where they are employed during the transportation and storage of ice cream and other frozen foods. Solid carbon dioxide is called "dry ice" and is used for small shipments where refrigeration equipment is not practical. Solid carbon dioxide is always below −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F) at regular atmospheric pressure, regardless of the air temperature.

Liquid carbon dioxide (industry nomenclature R744 or R-744) was used as a refrigerant prior to the use ofdichlorodifluoromethane (R12, achlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compound).^[136] CO₂ might enjoy a renaissance because one of the main substitutes to CFCs,1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R134a, ahydrofluorocarbon (HFC) compound) contributes toclimate change more than CO₂ does. CO₂ physical properties are highly favorable for cooling, refrigeration, and heating purposes, having a high volumetric cooling capacity. Due to the need to operate at pressures of up to 130 bars (1,900 psi; 13,000 kPa), CO₂ systems require highly mechanically resistant reservoirs and components that have already been developed for mass production in many sectors. In automobile air conditioning, in more than 90% of all driving conditions for latitudes higher than 50°, CO₂ (R744) operates more efficiently than systems using HFCs (e.g., R134a). Its environmental advantages (GWP of 1, non-ozone depleting, non-toxic, non-flammable) could make it the future working fluid to replace current HFCs in cars, supermarkets, and heat pump water heaters, among others.Coca-Cola has fielded CO₂-based beverage coolers and theU.S. Army is interested in CO₂ refrigeration and heating technology.^[137]^[138]

Minor uses

Carbon dioxide is thelasing medium in acarbon-dioxide laser, which is one of the earliest type of lasers.

Carbon dioxide can be used as a means of controlling thepH of swimming pools,^[139] by continuously adding gas to the water, thus keeping the pH from rising. Among the advantages of this is the avoidance of handling (more hazardous) acids. Similarly, it is also used in the maintainingreef aquaria, where it is commonly used incalcium reactors to temporarily lower the pH of water being passed overcalcium carbonate in order to allow the calcium carbonate to dissolve into the water more freely, where it is used by somecorals to build their skeleton.

Used as the primary coolant in the Britishadvanced gas-cooled reactor for nuclear power generation.

Carbon dioxide induction is commonly used for the euthanasia of laboratory research animals. Methods to administer CO₂ include placing animals directly into a closed, prefilled chamber containing CO₂, or exposure to a gradually increasing concentration of CO₂. TheAmerican Veterinary Medical Association's 2020 guidelines for carbon dioxide induction state that a displacement rate of 30–70% of the chamber or cage volume per minute is optimal for the humane euthanasia of small rodents.^[140]^: 5, 31 Percentages of CO₂ vary for different species, based on identified optimal percentages to minimize distress.^[140]^: 22

Carbon dioxide is also used in several relatedcleaning and surface-preparation techniques.

History of discovery

Carbon dioxide was the first gas to be described as a discrete substance. In about 1640,^[141] theFlemish chemistJan Baptist van Helmont observed that when he burnedcharcoal in a closed vessel, the mass of the resultingash was much less than that of the original charcoal. His interpretation was that the rest of the charcoal had been transmuted into an invisible substance he termed a "gas" (from Greek "chaos") or "wild spirit" (spiritus sylvestris).^[142]

The properties of carbon dioxide were further studied in the 1750s by theScottish physicianJoseph Black. He found thatlimestone (calcium carbonate) could be heated or treated withacids to yield a gas he called "fixed air". He observed that the fixed air was denser than air and supported neither flame nor animal life. Black also found that when bubbled throughlimewater (a saturated aqueous solution ofcalcium hydroxide), it wouldprecipitate calcium carbonate. He used this phenomenon to illustrate that carbon dioxide is produced by animal respiration and microbial fermentation. In 1772, English chemistJoseph Priestley published a paper entitledImpregnating Water with Fixed Air in which he described a process of drippingsulfuric acid (oroil of vitriol as Priestley knew it) on chalk in order to produce carbon dioxide, and forcing the gas to dissolve by agitating a bowl of water in contact with the gas.^[143]

Carbon dioxide was first liquefied (at elevated pressures) in 1823 byHumphry Davy andMichael Faraday.^[144] The earliest description of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) was given by the French inventorAdrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier, who in 1835 opened a pressurized container of liquid carbon dioxide, only to find that the cooling produced by the rapid evaporation of the liquid yielded a "snow" of solid CO₂.^[145]^[146]

Carbon dioxide in combination with nitrogen was known from earlier times asBlackdamp, stythe or choke damp.^[b] Along with the other types ofdamp it was encountered in mining operations and well sinking. Slow oxidation of coal and biological processes replaced the oxygen to create asuffocating mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide.^[147]

Notes

^where "part" here means permolecule^[9]
^Sometimes spelt "choak-damp" in 19th Century texts.

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Carbon dioxide

v t e Oxides
Mixed oxidation states	Antimony tetroxide (Sb₂O₄) Boron suboxide (B₁₂O₂) Carbon suboxide (C₃O₂) Chlorine perchlorate (Cl₂O₄) Chloryl perchlorate (Cl₂O₆) Cobalt(II,III) oxide (Co₃O₄) Dichlorine pentoxide (Cl₂O₅) Iron(II,III) oxide (Fe₃O₄) Lead(II,IV) oxide (Pb₃O₄) Manganese(II,III) oxide (Mn₃O₄) Mellitic anhydride (C₁₂O₉) Praseodymium(III,IV) oxide (Pr₆O₁₁) Silver(I,III) oxide (Ag₂O₂) Terbium(III,IV) oxide (Tb₄O₇) Tribromine octoxide (Br₃O₈) Triuranium octoxide (U₃O₈)
+1 oxidation state	Aluminium(I) oxide (Al₂O) Copper(I) oxide (Cu₂O) Caesium monoxide (Cs₂O) Dibromine monoxide (Br₂O) Dicarbon monoxide (C₂O) Dichlorine monoxide (Cl₂O) Gallium(I) oxide (Ga₂O) Iodine(I) oxide (I₂O) Lithium oxide (Li₂O) Mercury(I) oxide (Hg₂O) Nitrous oxide (N₂O) Potassium oxide (K₂O) Rubidium oxide (Rb₂O) Silver oxide (Ag₂O) Thallium(I) oxide (Tl₂O) Sodium oxide (Na₂O) Water (hydrogen oxide) (H₂O)
+2 oxidation state	Aluminium(II) oxide (AlO) Barium oxide (BaO) Berkelium monoxide (BkO) Beryllium oxide (BeO) Boron monoxide (BO) Bromine monoxide (BrO) Cadmium oxide (CdO) Calcium oxide (CaO) Carbon monoxide (CO) Chlorine monoxide (ClO) Chromium(II) oxide (CrO) Cobalt(II) oxide (CoO) Copper(II) oxide (CuO) Dinitrogen dioxide (N₂O₂) Disulfur dioxide (S₂O₂) Europium(II) oxide (EuO) Germanium monoxide (GeO) Iron(II) oxide (FeO) Iodine monoxide (IO) Lead(II) oxide (PbO) Magnesium oxide (MgO) Manganese(II) oxide (MnO) Mercury(II) oxide (HgO) Nickel(II) oxide (NiO) Nitric oxide (NO) Niobium monoxide (NbO) Palladium(II) oxide (PdO) Phosphorus monoxide (PO) Polonium monoxide (PoO) Protactinium monoxide (PaO) Radium oxide (RaO) Silicon monoxide (SiO) Strontium oxide (SrO) Sulfur monoxide (SO) Thorium monoxide (ThO) Tin(II) oxide (SnO) Titanium(II) oxide (TiO) Vanadium(II) oxide (VO) Yttrium(II) oxide (YO) Zirconium monoxide (ZrO) Zinc oxide (ZnO)
+3 oxidation state	Actinium(III) oxide (Ac₂O₃) Aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) Americium(III) oxide (Am₂O₃) Antimony trioxide (Sb₂O₃) Arsenic trioxide (As₂O₃) Berkelium(III) oxide (Bk₂O₃) Bismuth(III) oxide (Bi₂O₃) Boron trioxide (B₂O₃) Caesium sesquioxide (Cs₂O₃) Californium(III) oxide (Cf₂O₃) Cerium(III) oxide (Ce₂O₃) Chromium(III) oxide (Cr₂O₃) Cobalt(III) oxide (Co₂O₃) Dinitrogen trioxide (N₂O₃) Dysprosium(III) oxide (Dy₂O₃) Einsteinium(III) oxide (Es₂O₃) Erbium(III) oxide (Er₂O₃) Europium(III) oxide (Eu₂O₃) Gadolinium(III) oxide (Gd₂O₃) Gallium(III) oxide (Ga₂O₃) Gold(III) oxide (Au₂O₃) Holmium(III) oxide (Ho₂O₃) Indium(III) oxide (In₂O₃) Iron(III) oxide (Fe₂O₃) Lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃) Lutetium(III) oxide (Lu₂O₃) Manganese(III) oxide (Mn₂O₃) Neodymium(III) oxide (Nd₂O₃) Nickel(III) oxide (Ni₂O₃) Phosphorus trioxide (P₄O₆) Praseodymium(III) oxide (Pr₂O₃) Promethium(III) oxide (Pm₂O₃) Rhodium(III) oxide (Rh₂O₃) Samarium(III) oxide (Sm₂O₃) Scandium oxide (Sc₂O₃) Terbium(III) oxide (Tb₂O₃) Thallium(III) oxide (Tl₂O₃) Thulium(III) oxide (Tm₂O₃) Titanium(III) oxide (Ti₂O₃) Tungsten(III) oxide (W₂O₃) Vanadium(III) oxide (V₂O₃) Ytterbium(III) oxide (Yb₂O₃) Yttrium(III) oxide (Y₂O₃)
+4 oxidation state	Americium dioxide (AmO₂) Berkelium(IV) oxide (BkO₂) Bromine dioxide (BrO₂) Californium dioxide (CfO₂) Carbon dioxide (CO₂) Carbon trioxide (CO₃) Cerium(IV) oxide (CeO₂) Chlorine dioxide (ClO₂) Chromium(IV) oxide (CrO₂) Curium(IV) oxide (CmO₂) Dinitrogen tetroxide (N₂O₄) Germanium dioxide (GeO₂) Iodine dioxide (IO₂) Iridium dioxide (IrO₂) Hafnium(IV) oxide (HfO₂) Lead dioxide (PbO₂) Manganese dioxide (MnO₂) Molybdenum dioxide (MoO₂) Neptunium(IV) oxide (NpO₂) Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) Niobium dioxide (NbO₂) Osmium dioxide (OsO₂) Platinum dioxide (PtO₂) Plutonium(IV) oxide (PuO₂) Polonium dioxide (PoO₂) Praseodymium(IV) oxide (PrO₂) Protactinium(IV) oxide (PaO₂) Rhenium(IV) oxide (ReO₂) Rhodium(IV) oxide (RhO₂) Ruthenium(IV) oxide (RuO₂) Selenium dioxide (SeO₂) Silicon dioxide (SiO₂) Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) Technetium(IV) oxide (TcO₂) Tellurium dioxide (TeO₂) Terbium(IV) oxide (TbO₂) Thorium dioxide (ThO₂) Tin dioxide (SnO₂) Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) Tungsten(IV) oxide (WO₂) Uranium dioxide (UO₂) Vanadium(IV) oxide (VO₂) Zirconium dioxide (ZrO₂)
+5 oxidation state	Antimony pentoxide (Sb₂O₅) Arsenic pentoxide (As₂O₅) Bismuth pentoxide (Bi₂O₅) Dinitrogen pentoxide (N₂O₅) Diuranium pentoxide (U₂O₅) Niobium pentoxide (Nb₂O₅) Phosphorus pentoxide (P₂O₅) Protactinium(V) oxide (Pa₂O₅) Tantalum pentoxide (Ta₂O₅) Tungsten pentoxide (W₂O₅) Vanadium(V) oxide (V₂O₅)
+6 oxidation state	Chromium trioxide (CrO₃) Molybdenum trioxide (MoO₃) Polonium trioxide (PoO₃) Rhenium trioxide (ReO₃) Selenium trioxide (SeO₃) Sulfur trioxide (SO₃) Tellurium trioxide (TeO₃) Tungsten trioxide (WO₃) Uranium trioxide (UO₃) Xenon trioxide (XeO₃)
+7 oxidation state	Dichlorine heptoxide (Cl₂O₇) Manganese heptoxide (Mn₂O₇) Rhenium(VII) oxide (Re₂O₇) Technetium(VII) oxide (Tc₂O₇)
+8 oxidation state	Iridium tetroxide (IrO₄) Osmium tetroxide (OsO₄) Ruthenium tetroxide (RuO₄) Xenon tetroxide (XeO₄) Hassium tetroxide (HsO₄)
Related	Oxocarbon Suboxide Oxyanion Ozonide Peroxide Superoxide Oxypnictide
Oxides are sorted byoxidation state.Category:Oxides

v t e Oxocarbons
Common oxides	CO CO₂
Exotic oxides	CO₃ CO₄ CO₅ CO₆ C₂O C₂O₂ C₂O₃ C₂O₄ (1,2-Dioxetanedione and1,3-Dioxetanedione) C₃O C₃O₂ C₃O₃ C₃O₆ C₄O₂ C₄O₄ C₄O₆ C₅O₂ C₅O₅ C₆O₆ (Cyclohexanehexone andEthylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride) C₈O₈ C₉O₉ C₁₀O₈ C₁₀O₁₀ C₁₂O₆ C₁₂O₉ C₁₂O₁₂
Polymers	Graphite oxide C₃O₂ CO CO₂
Compounds derived from oxides	Metal carbonyls Carbonic acid Bicarbonates Carbonates Polycarbonates (Dicarbonates andTricarbonates) Peroxydicarbonates

v t e Inorganic compounds of carbon and related ions
Compounds	CF CO CO₂ CO₃ CO₄ CO₅ CO₆ COS CS C₂S₂ CS₂ CSe₂ C₃O₂ C₃S₂ SiC
Carbon ions	Carbides [:C≡C:]²⁻, [::C::]⁴⁻, [:C=C=C:]⁴⁻ Cyanide [:C≡N:]⁻ Cyanate [:O−C≡N:]⁻ Thiocyanate [:S−C≡N:]⁻ Fulminate [:C≡N−O:]⁻ Thiofulminate [:C≡N−S:]⁻
Nanostructures	Graphite intercalation compounds Fullerides
Oxides and related	Oxides Nitrides Metal carbonyls Carbonic acid Bicarbonates Carbonates

Climate change

Overview
Causes of climate change Effects of climate change Climate change mitigation Climate change adaptation By country and region

Causes

Overview	Climate system Greenhouse effect (Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere) Scientific consensus on climate change
Sources	Deforestation Fossil fuel Greenhouse gases Greenhouse gas emissions Carbon accounting Carbon footprint Carbon leakage from agriculture from wetlands World energy supply and consumption

History
History of climate change policy and politics History of climate change science Svante Arrhenius James Hansen Charles David Keeling United Nations Climate Change conferences Years in climate change 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024

Effects and issues

Physical	Abrupt climate change Anoxic event Arctic methane emissions Arctic sea ice decline Atlantic meridional overturning circulation Drought Extreme weather Flood Coastal flooding Heat wave Marine Urban heat island Oceans acidification deoxygenation heat content sea surface temperature stratification temperature Ozone depletion Permafrost thaw Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Sea level rise Season creep Climate sensitivity Tipping points in the climate system Tropical cyclones Water cycle Wildfires
Flora and fauna	Biomes Mass mortality event Birds Extinction risk Forest dieback Invasive species Marine life Plant biodiversity
Social and economic	Agriculture Livestock Multi-breadbasket failure United States Children Cities Civilizational collapse Crime Depopulation of settlements Destruction of cultural heritage Disability Economic impacts U.S. insurance industry Fisheries Gender Health Mental health Human rights Indigenous peoples Infectious diseases Migration Poverty Psychological impacts Security and conflict Urban flooding Water scarcity Water security
By country and region	Africa Americas Antarctica Arctic Asia Australia Caribbean Europe Middle East and North Africa Small island countries by individual country

Mitigation

Economics and finance	Carbon budget Carbon emission trading Carbon offsets and credits Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) Carbon price Carbon tax Climate debt Climate finance Climate risk insurance Co-benefits of climate change mitigation Economics of climate change mitigation Fossil fuel divestment Green Climate Fund Low-carbon economy Net zero emissions
Energy	Carbon capture and storage Energy transition Fossil fuel phase-out Nuclear power Renewable energy Sustainable energy
Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks	Blue carbon Carbon dioxide removal Carbon sequestration Direct air capture Carbon farming Climate-smart agriculture Forest management afforestation forestry for carbon sequestration REDD and REDD+ reforestation Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF and AFOLU) Nature-based solutions
Personal	Individual action on climate change Plant-based diet

Society andadaptation

Society	Business action Climate action Climate emergency declaration Climate movement School Strike for Climate Denial Ecological grief Governance Justice Litigation Politics Public opinion Women
Adaptation	Adaptation strategies on the German coast Adaptive capacity Disaster risk reduction Ecosystem-based adaptation Flood control Loss and damage Managed retreat Nature-based solutions Resilience Risk Vulnerability The Adaptation Fund National Adaptation Programme of Action
Communication	Climate Change Performance Index Climate crisis (term) Climate spiral Education Media coverage Popular culture depictions art fiction video games Warming stripes
International agreements	Glasgow Climate Pact Kyoto Protocol Paris Agreement Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement Nationally determined contributions Sustainable Development Goal 13 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Background and theory

Measurements	Global surface temperature Instrumental temperature record Proxy Satellite temperature measurement
Theory	Albedo Carbon cycle atmospheric biologic oceanic permafrost Carbon sink Climate sensitivity Climate variability and change Cloud feedback Cloud forcing Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis Cryosphere Earth's energy budget Extreme event attribution Feedbacks Global warming potential Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change Orbital forcing Radiative forcing
Research and modelling	Climate change scenario Climate model Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) IPCC Sixth Assessment Report Paleoclimatology Representative Concentration Pathway Shared Socioeconomic Pathways

Molecules detected in outer space

Molecules

Diatomic	Aluminium monochloride Aluminium monofluoride Aluminium(II) oxide Argonium Carbon cation Carbon monophosphide Carbon monosulfide Carbon monoxide Cyano radical Diatomic carbon Fluoromethylidynium Helium hydride ion Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen fluoride Hydrogen (molecular) Hydroxyl radical Imidogen Iron(II) oxide Magnesium monohydride Methylidyne radical Nitric oxide Nitrogen (molecular) Oxygen (molecular) Phosphorus monoxide Phosphorus mononitride Potassium chloride Silicon carbide Silicon monoxide Silicon monosulfide Sodium chloride Sodium iodide Sulfanyl Sulfur mononitride Sulfur monoxide Titanium(II) oxide
Triatomic	Aluminium(I) hydroxide Aluminium isocyanide Amino radical Carbon dioxide Carbonyl sulfide CCP radical Chloronium Diazenylium Dicarbon monoxide Disilicon carbide Ethynyl radical Formyl radical Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) Hydrogen isocyanide (HNC) Hydrogen sulfide Hydroperoxyl Iron cyanide Isoformyl Magnesium cyanide Magnesium isocyanide Methylene Methylidynephosphane N₂H⁺ Nitrous oxide Nitroxyl Ozone Potassium cyanide Sodium cyanide Sodium hydroxide Silicon carbonitride c-Silicon dicarbide SiNC Sulfur dioxide Thioformyl Thioxoethenylidene Titanium dioxide Tricarbon Trihydrogen cation Water
Four atoms	Acetylene Ammonia Cyanoethynyl Formaldehyde Fulminic acid HCCN Hydrogen peroxide Hydromagnesium isocyanide Isocyanic acid Isothiocyanic acid Ketenyl Methyl cation Methyl radical Methylene amidogen Propynylidyne Protonated carbon dioxide Protonated hydrogen cyanide Silicon tricarbide Thiocyanic acid Thioformaldehyde Tricarbon monosulfide Tricarbon monoxide
Five atoms	Ammonium ion Butadiynyl Carbodiimide Cyanamide Cyanoacetylene Cyanoformaldehyde Cyanomethyl Cyclopropenylidene Formic acid Isocyanoacetylene Ketene Methane Methoxy radical Methylenimine Propadienylidene Protonated formaldehyde Silane Silicon-carbide cluster
Six atoms	Acetonitrile Cyanobutadiynyl radical Cyclopropenone Diacetylene E-Cyanomethanimine Ethylene Formamide HC₄N Ketenimine Methanethiol Methanol Methyl isocyanide Pentynylidyne Propynal Protonated cyanoacetylene
Seven atoms	Acetaldehyde Acrylonitrile Vinyl cyanide Cyanodiacetylene Ethylene oxide Glycolonitrile Hexatriynyl radical Methyl isocyanate Methylamine Propyne Vinyl alcohol
Eight atoms	Acetic acid Acrolein Aminoacetonitrile Cyanoallene Ethanimine Glycolaldehyde Hexapentaenylidene Methyl formate Methylcyanoacetylene
Nine atoms	Acetamide Cyanohexatriyne Dimethyl ether Ethanethiol Ethanol Methyldiacetylene N-Methylformamide Octatetraynyl radical Propene Propionitrile
Ten atoms or more	Acetone Benzene Benzonitrile Buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀, C₆₀⁺, fullerene, buckyball) Butyronitrile C₇₀ fullerene Cyanodecapentayne Ethyl formate Ethylene glycol Heptatrienyl radical Methyl acetate Methyl-cyano-diacetylene Methyltriacetylene Propionaldehyde Pyrimidine

Deuterated
molecules

Unconfirmed

v t e Oxygen compounds
Ag₄O₄ Al₂O₃ AmO₂ Am₂O₃ As₂O₃ As₂O₅ Au₂O₃ B₂O₃ BaO BeO Bi₂O₃ BiO₂ Bi₂O₅ BrO₂ Br₂O₃ Br₂O₅ Br ₃O ₈ CO CO₂ C₃O₂ CaO CaO₂ CdO CeO₂ Ce₃O₄ Ce₂O₃ ClO₂ Cl₂O Cl₂O₂ Cl₂O₃ Cl₂O₄ Cl₂O₆ Cl₂O₇ CoO Co₂O₃ Co₃O₄ CrO₃ Cr₂O₃ Cr₂O₅ Cr₅O₁₂ CsO₂ Cs₂O₃ CuO Dy₂O₃ Er₂O₃ Eu₂O₃ FeO Fe₂O₃ Fe₃O₄ Ga₂O Ga₂O₃ GeO GeO₂ H₂O ²H₂O ³H₂O H₂¹⁸O H₂O₂ HfO₂ HgO Hg₂O Ho₂O₃ IO I₂O₄ I₂O₅ I₂O₆ I₄O₉ In₂O₃ IrO₂ KO₂ K₂O₂ La₂O₃ Li₂O Li₂O₂ Lu₂O₃ MgO Mg₂O₃ MnO MnO₂ Mn₂O₃ Mn₂O₇ MoO₂ MoO₃ Mo₂O₃ NO NO₂ N₂O N₂O₃ N₂O₄ N₂O₅ NaO₂ Na₂O Na₂O₂ NbO NbO₂ Nd₂O₃ O₂F OF OF₂ O₂F₂ O₃F₂ O₄F₂ O₅F₂ O₆F₂ O₂PtF₆ more...

Authority control databases
International	FAST
National	Germany United States Japan Czech Republic Spain Israel

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