 Bushmeat seen on the roadsidein Ghana: includes driedcane rat,giant pouched rat, andred-flanked duiker. | |
| Alternative names | Wild meat, wild game |
|---|---|
| Main ingredients | Wildlife |
Bushmeat ismeat fromwildlifehunted for human consumption, specifically in parts ofAfrica,Asia, andSouth America. Bushmeat is commonly harvested through unregulated or subsistence hunting practices. Bushmeat often consists of local smallmammals in an area, such asprimates,bats, androdents, but can also refer to smallbirds andreptiles.
In apublic health context, bushmeat is of concern due to its association with thetransmission ofzoonotic diseases such asEbola andHIV, as well as other emerging infectious diseases linked to the handling, butchering, and consumption of wild animals.[1][2][3] Bushmeat represents a primary source of animalprotein and a cash-earning commodity in poor and rural communities of humidtropical forest regions of the world.[4][5]
The numbers of animals killed and traded as bushmeat in 1994 inWest andCentral Africa were thought to be unsustainable.[6]By 2005, commercial harvesting and trading of bushmeat was considered a threat tobiodiversity.[7] As of 2016, 301 terrestrialmammals were threatened withextinction due to hunting for bushmeat including non-humanprimates,even-toed ungulates,bats,diprotodont marsupials,rodents andcarnivores occurring indeveloping countries.[8]
The term 'bushmeat' is originally anAfrican term for wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption,[5] and usually refers specifically to the meat of African wildlife.[9]In October 2000, theIUCN World Conservation Congress passed a resolution on the unsustainable commercial trade inwild meat. Affected countries were urged to recognize the increasing ramifications of the bushmeat trade, to strengthen and enforce legislation, and to develop action programmes to mitigate the consequences of the trade. Donor organisations were requested to provide funding for the implementation of such programmes.[10]
Wildlifehunting for food is important for the livelihood security of and supply ofdietary protein for poor people. It can be sustainable when carried out by traditionalhunter-gatherers in large landscapes for their own consumption. Due to the extent of bushmeat hunting fortrade in markets, the survival of those species that are large-bodied and reproduce slowly is threatened. The termbushmeat crisis was coined in 2007 and refers to this dual threat of depleting food resources and wildlifeextinctions, both entailed by the bushmeat trade.[5]
Globally, more than 1,000 animal species are estimated to be affected by hunting for bushmeat.[4]Bushmeat hunters use mostly leg-holdsnare traps to catch any wildlife, but prefer to kill large species, as these provide a greater amount of meat than small species.[11]
The volume of the bushmeat trade inWest andCentral Africa was estimated at 1–5 million tonnes (980,000–4,920,000 long tons; 1,100,000–5,500,000 short tons) per year at the turn of the 21st century.[12] In 2002, it was estimated that species weighing more than 10 kg (22 lb) contribute 177.7 ± 358.4 kg/km2 (1,015 ± 2,046 lb/sq mi) of meat per year to the bushmeat extracted in theCongo Basin, based on 24 individuals. Species weighingless than 10 kg (22 lb) were estimated to contribute 35.4 ± 72.2 kg/km2 (202 ± 412 lb/sq mi), also based on 24 individuals. Bushmeat extraction in theAmazon rainforest was estimated to be much lower, at 3.69 ± 3.9 kg/km2 (21.1 ± 22.3 lb/sq mi) in the case of species weighing more than 10 kg and 0.6 ± 0.9 kg/km2 (3.4 ± 5.1 lb/sq mi) in the case of species weighing less than 10 kg, based on 3 individuals.[13][better source needed]Based on these estimates, a total of 2,200,000 t (2,200,000 long tons; 2,400,000 short tons) bushmeat is extracted in the Congo Basin per year, ranging from 12,938 t (12,734 long tons; 14,262 short tons) inEquatorial Guinea to 1,665,972 t (1,639,661 long tons; 1,836,420 short tons) in theDemocratic Republic of the Congo.[14]
The 301 mammal species threatened by hunting for bushmeat comprise 126 primates, 65 even-toed ungulates, 27 bats, 26 diprotodont marsupials, 21 rodents, 12 carnivores and allpangolin species.[8]
Primate species offered fresh and smoked in 2009 at a wildlife market by Liberia'sCavally River includedchimpanzee (Pan troglodytes),Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana),putty-nosed monkey (C. nictitans),lesser spot-nosed monkey (C. petaurista),Campbell's mona monkey (C. campbelli),sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys),king colobus (Colobus polykomos),olive colobus (Procolobus verus),western red colobus (P. badius).Duiker species constituted more than half of the total 723 animals offered.[15]In 2012, the bushmeat trade was surveyed in three villages in theSassandra Department,Ivory Coast. During six months, nine restaurants received 376 mammals and eight reptiles, includingdwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis),harnessed bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus),Maxwell's duiker (Philantomba maxwellii),bay duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis), Campbell's mona monkey, lesser spot-nosed monkey,potto (Perodicticus potto),tree pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis),long-tailed pangolin (P. tetradactyla),African brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus),giant pouched rat (Cricetomys gambianus),greater cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus), striped ground squirrel (Xerus erythropus) andwestern tree hyrax (Dendrohyrax dorsalis).[16]About 128,400straw-coloured fruit bats (Eidolon helvum) were estimated in 2011 to be traded as bushmeat every year in four cities in southern Ghana.[17]
In 2006, it was estimated that about 1,437,458 animals are killed every year in theNigerian andCameroon parts of theCross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests, including about 43,880Emin's pouched rats (Cricetomys emini), 41,800 tree pangolins, 39,700 putty-nosed monkeys, 22,500Mona monkeys (Cercopithecus mona), 3,500red-eared guenons (C. erythrotis), 20,300drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus), 15,300African civets (Civettictis civetta), 11,900common kusimanses (Crossarchus obscurus), more than 7,600African palm civets (Nandinia binotata), 26,760Nile monitors (Varanus niloticus) and 410African forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis).[18]
Between 1983 and 2002, theGabon populations ofwestern gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) andcommon chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure forlogging purposes.[19]Marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus) andlong-nosed mongoose (Herpestes naso) are the most numerous small carnivores offered in rural bushmeat markets in the country.[20]
In the late 1990s, fresh and smokedbonobo (Pan paniscus) carcasses were observed inBasankusu in theProvince of Équateur in the Congo Basin.[21]The main species killed by bushmeat hunters in Tanzania'sKatavi-Rukwa Region includeimpala (Aepyceros melampus),common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia),warthog (Phacocherus africanus),Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer), harnessed bushbuck,red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus) andplains zebra (Equus quagga).[22]
A survey in a rural area in southwestern Madagascar revealed that bushmeat hunters targetbushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus),ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta),Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi),Hubbard's sportive lemur (Lepilemur hubbardorum),fat-tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius),common tenrec (Tenrec ecaudatus),grey mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus),reddish-gray mouse lemur (M. griseorufus),Madagascan fruit bat (Eidolon dupreanum) andMadagascan flying fox (Pteropus rufus).[23]
Logging concessions operated by companies in African forests have been closely linked to the bushmeat trade. Because they provide roads, trucks and other access to remote forests, they are the primary means for the transportation of hunters and meat between forests and urban centres. Some, including the Congolaise Industrielle du Bois (CIB) in theRepublic of Congo, partnered with governments and international conservation organizations to regulate the bushmeat trade within the concessions where they operate. Numerous solutions are needed; because each country has different circumstances, traditions and laws, no one solution will work in every location.[24]
Bushmeat can be an important source ofmicronutrients andmacronutrients. A study of South Americans in theTres Fronteras region found that those who consumed bushmeat were at a lower risk ofanemia and chronic health conditions, as their diets included moreiron,zinc, andvitamin C than those who did not eat bushmeat.[25]
InGhana, internationalillegal over-exploitation of Africanfishing grounds has increased demand for bushmeat. BothEuropean Union-subsidized fleets and local commercial fleets have depleted fish stocks, leaving local people to supplement their diets with animals hunted from nature reserves. Over 30 years of data link sharp declines in both mammal populations and the biomass of 41 wildlife species with a decreased supply of fish.[26]Consumption of fish and of bushmeat is correlated: the decline of one resource drives up the demand and price for the other.[4]
Transhumantpastoralists from the border area betweenSudan and theCentral African Republic are accompanied by armed merchants who also engage inpoaching largeherbivores. The decline ofgiant eland, Cape buffalo,hartebeest andwaterbuck in theChinko area between 2012 and 2017 is attributed to their poaching activities. They use livestock to transport bushmeat to markets.[27]
Animal sources may have been the cause for infectious diseases such astuberculosis,leprosy,cholera,smallpox,measles,influenza, andsyphilis acquired by early agrarians. The emergence ofHIV-1,AIDS,Ebola virus disease, andCreutzfeldt-Jakob disease are attributed to animal sources today.[2]Thomas's rope squirrel (Funisciurus anerythrus) andred-legged sun squirrel (Heliosciurus rufobrachium) were found to carryMPXV in theDemocratic Republic of the Congo in the 1980s.[28]
Outbreaks of the Ebola virus in theCongo Basin and inGabon in the 1990s have been associated with the butchering and consumption ofchimpanzees andbonobos.[1] Bushmeat hunters in Central Africa infected with thehuman T-lymphotropic virus were closely exposed to wild primates.[29]Anthrax can be transmitted when butchering and eating ungulates. The risk ofbloodborne diseases to be transmitted is higher when butchering a carcass than when transporting, cooking and eating it.[30]
Many hunters and traders are not aware ofzoonosis and the risks of disease transmissions.[31]An interview survey in rural communities in Nigeria revealed that 55% of the respondents knew ofzoonoses, but their education and cultural traditions are important drivers for hunting and eating bushmeat despite the risks involved.[32]
Results of research on wild chimpanzees in Cameroon indicate that they are naturally infected with thesimian foamy virus and constitute a reservoir of HIV-1, a precursor of theacquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) inhumans.[33] There are several distinct strains of HIV, indicating that this cross-species transfer has occurred several times.[34]Simian immunodeficiency virus present in chimpanzees is reportedly derived from older strains of the virus present in thecollared mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus) and the putty-nosed monkey. It is likely that HIV was initially transferred to humans after having come into contact with infected bushmeat.[35]
The natural reservoirs of ebolaviruses are unknown.[36][37][38] Possible reservoirs include non-humanprimates,[36]megabats, rodents, shrews, carnivores, and ungulates.[39]Between October 2001 and December 2003, five Ebola virus outbreaks occurred in the border area between Gabon and Republic of Congo. Autopsies of wildlife carcasses showed that chimpanzees, gorillas and bay duikers were infected with the virus.[40]The Ebola virus has been linked to bushmeat, with some researchers hypothesizing that megabats are a primary host of at least some variants of Ebola virus. Between the first recorded outbreak in 1976 and the largest in 2014, the virus hastransferred from animals to humans only 30 times, despite large numbers of bats being killed and sold each year. Bats drop partially eaten fruits and pulp, then terrestrial mammals such as gorillas and duikers feed on these fruits. This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations.[41]The suspectedindex case for theEbola virus epidemic in West Africa in 2014 was a two-year-old boy inMeliandou in south-eastern Guinea, who played in a hollow tree harbouring a colony ofAngolan free-tailed bats (Mops condylurus).[42]
Results of a study conducted during the Ebola crisis in Liberia showed that socio-economic conditions affected bushmeat consumption. During the crisis, there was a decrease in bushmeat consumption and daily meal frequency. In addition, preferences for bushmeat species stayed the same.[43]
In Cameroon, 15 primate species were examined forgastrointestinalparasites. Bushmeat primates were infected withTrichuris,Entamoeba,Ascaris,Capillaria,pinworms,Bertiella andEndolimax nana.[44]A large proportion ofBitis vipers sold at rural bushmeat markets in the Democratic Republic of the Congo are infected byArmillifer grandis, which represent a threat to public health.[45]
Suggestions for reducing or halting bushmeat harvest and trade include:[46]
As an alternative to bushmeat,captive breeding of species traditionally harvested from the wild is sometimes feasible. Captive breeding efforts must be closely monitored, as there is risk they can be used tolaunder and legitimize individuals captured from the wild, similar to the laundering of wildgreen tree pythons in Indonesia for the pet trade.[25]
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{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)We found published evidence from cases of serological and/or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) positivity of EVD in non- human mammal, or of EVD-linked mortality, in 28 mammal species: 10 primates, three rodents, one shrew, eight bats, one carnivore, and five ungulates
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