 | This article'slead section may be too long. Please read thelength guidelines and helpmove details into the article's body.(September 2023) |
Part ofa series on the |
|---|
| History ofBulgaria |
 |
|
Main category Bulgaria portal |
Thehistory of Bulgaria can be traced from the first settlements on the lands ofmodern Bulgaria to its formation as anation-state, and includes the history of theBulgarian people and their origin. The earliest evidence ofhominid occupation discovered in what is today Bulgaria date from at least 1.4 million years ago.[1] Around5000 BC, a sophisticated civilization already existed which produced some of the first pottery, jewellery and golden artifacts in the world. After 3500 BC, theThracians appeared on theBalkan Peninsula.[2] In the late 6th century BC, parts of what is currently Bulgaria, in particular the eastern region of the country, came under thePersian Achaemenid Empire.[3] In the 470s BC, the Thracians formed the powerfulOdrysian Kingdom which lasted until 46 BC, when it was finally conquered by theRoman Empire.[4] During the centuries, some Thracian tribes fell underancient Macedonian andHellenistic, and alsoCeltic domination. This mixture of ancient peoples was assimilated by theSlavs, who permanently settled on the peninsula after 500 AD.
In 632 theBulgars formed an independent state north of theBlack sea that became known asGreat Bulgaria under the leadership ofKubrat. Pressure from theKhazars led to the gradual disintegration of Great Bulgaria in the second half of the 7th century. One ofKubrat's successors,Asparuh, leading some of the Bulgar tribes settled in the area around theDanube delta, and subsequently conqueredScythia Minor andMoesia Inferior from theByzantine Empire, expanding his new kingdom further into the Balkan peninsula.[5] The crucialBattle of Ongal in 680, the peace treaty with Byzantium in 681, and the establishment of a permanent Bulgarian capital atPliska south of the Danube mark the beginning of theFirst Bulgarian Empire. The new state brought together localByzantine population andmigrant population as Early Slavs under Bulgar rule, and a slow process of mutual assimilation began. In the following centuries Bulgaria established itself as a powerful empire, dominating the Balkans through its aggressive military traditions, which led to development of a distinct ethnic identity.[6] Its ethnically and culturally diverse people united under a common religion, language and alphabet which formed and preserved the Bulgarian national consciousness despite foreign invasions and influences.
In the 11th century, the First Bulgarian Empire collapsed under multipleRus' and Byzantine attacks and wars, and was conquered and became part of the Byzantine Empire until 1185. Then, amajor uprising led by two brothers, Asen and Peter of theAsen dynasty, restored the Bulgarian state to form theSecond Bulgarian Empire. After reaching its apogee in the 1230s, Bulgaria started to decline due to a number of factors, most notably its geographic position which rendered it vulnerable to simultaneous attacks and invasions from many sides. A peasant rebellion, one of the few successful such in history, established the swineherdIvaylo as a Tsar. His short reign was essential in recovering—at least partially—the integrity of the Bulgarian state. A relatively thriving period followed after 1300, but ended in 1371, when factional divisions caused Bulgaria to split into three small Tsardoms. By 1396, they were subjugated by theOttoman Empire. The Turks eliminated the Bulgarian system of nobility and ruling clergy, and Bulgaria remainedan integral Ottoman Empire territory for the next 500 years.
With the decline of the Ottoman Empire after 1700, signs of revival started to emerge. The Bulgarian nobility had vanished, leaving an egalitarian peasant society with a small but growing urban middle class. By the 19th century, theBulgarian National Revival became a key component of the struggle for independence, which would culminate in the failedApril uprising in 1876, which prompted theRusso-Turkish War of 1877–78 and the subsequentLiberation of Bulgaria. The initialTreaty of San Stefano was rejected by the Great Powers, and the following Treaty of Berlin limited Bulgaria's territories toMoesia and the region of Sofia. This left many ethnic Bulgarians out of the borders of the new state, which defined Bulgaria's militaristic approach to regional affairs and its allegiance to Germany in both World Wars.
AfterWorld War II, Bulgaria became aCommunist state, and the General Secretary of theBulgarian Communist Party,Todor Zhivkov, served for a period of 35 years, where there was relatively rapid economic growth. The Communist system collapsed in the 1980s, and several problems in the 1990s decreased the economic development of Bulgaria's agricultural and other industries. A period of relative stabilization began with the election ofSimeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha as prime minister in 2001. Bulgaria joinedNATO in 2004 and theEuropean Union in 2007.
The earliest human remains found in Bulgaria were excavated in theKozarnika cave, with an approximate age of 1,6 million BC. This cave probably keeps the earliest evidence of human symbolic behaviour ever found. A fragmented pair of human jaws, which are 44,000 years old, were found inBacho Kiro cave, but it is disputed whether these early humans were in factHomo sapiens orNeanderthals.[7]
The earliest dwellings in Bulgaria – theStara Zagora Neolithic dwellings – date from 6,000 BC and are amongst theoldest human-made structures yet discovered.[8] By the end of the Neolithic, theKaranovo,Hamangia andVinča cultures developed on what is today Bulgaria, southern Romania and eastern Serbia.[9][10] The earliest known town in Europe,Solnitsata, was located in present-day Bulgaria.[11] TheDurankulak lake settlement inBulgaria commenced on a small island, approximately 7000 BC and around 4700/4600 BC the stone architecture was already in general use and became a characteristic phenomenon that was unique in Europe.
TheeneolithicVarna culture (5000 BC)[12] represents the first civilization with a sophisticated social hierarchy in Europe. The centrepiece of this culture is theVarna Necropolis, discovered in the early 1970s. It serves as a tool in understanding how the earliest European societies functioned,[13] principally through well-preserved ritual burials, pottery, and golden jewellery. The golden rings, bracelets and ceremonial weapons discovered in one of the graves were created between 4,600 and 4200 BC, which makes them the oldest gold artefacts yet discovered anywhere in the world.[14]
Some of the earliest evidence ofgrape cultivation and livestockdomestication is associated with the Bronze AgeEzero culture.[15] TheMagura Cave drawings date from the same era, although the exact years of their creation cannot be pin-pointed.
The first people to leave lasting traces and cultural heritage throughout the region were theThracians. Their origin remains obscure. It is generally proposed that a proto-Thracian people developed from a mixture ofindigenous peoples andIndo-Europeans from the time of Proto-Indo-European expansion in theEarly Bronze Age[16] when the latter, around 1500 BC, conquered the indigenous peoples.[17] Thracian craftsmen inherited the skills of the indigenous civilisations before them, especially in gold working.[18]
The Thracians were generally disorganized, but had an advanced culture despite the lack of their own proper script, and gathered powerful military forces when their divided tribes formed unions under the pressure of external threats. They formed theOdrysian kingdom[19] Although the concept of an urban center was not developed until the Roman period, various larger fortifications which also served as regional market centers were numerous. Yet, in general, despite Greek colonization in such areas asByzantium,Apollonia and other cities, the Thracians avoided urban life.
The firstGreek colonies in Thrace were founded in the 8th century BC.[20]
Ever since theMacedonian kingAmyntas I surrendered his country to thePersians in about 512-511 BC, Macedonians and Persians were strangers no more.[3] Subjugation ofMacedonia was part of Persian military operations initiated byDarius the Great (521–486 BC). In 513 BC - after immense preparations - a huge Achaemenid army invaded theBalkans andtried to defeat the EuropeanScythians roaming to the north of theDanube river.[3] Darius' army subjugated severalThracian peoples, and virtually all other regions that touch the European part of theBlack Sea, such as parts of nowadaysBulgaria,Romania,Ukraine, andRussia, before it returned toAsia Minor.[3][22] Darius left in Europe one of his commanders namedMegabazus whose task was to accomplish conquests in the Balkans.[3] The Persian troops subjugated gold-richThrace, the coastal Greek cities, as well as defeating and conquering the powerfulPaeonians.[3][23][24] Finally, Megabazus sent envoys to Amyntas, demanding acceptation of Persian domination, which the Macedonians accepted.[3] Following theIonian Revolt, the Persian hold over the Balkans loosened, but was firmly restored in 492 BC through the campaigns ofMardonius.[3] The Balkans, including what is nowadays Bulgaria, provided many soldiers for the multi-ethnic Achaemenid army. Several Thracian treasures dating from the Persian rule in Bulgaria have been found.[25] Most of what is today eastern Bulgaria remained firmly under the Persian swayuntil 479 BC.[3][26] The Persian garrison atDoriscus in Thrace held out for many years even after the Persian defeat, and reportedly never surrendered. It remained as the last Persian stronghold in Europe.[27][self-published source]
Thracian tribes remained divided and most of them fell under nominal Persian rule from the late 6th century until the first half of the 5th century,[28] until KingTeres united most of them under theOdrysian kingdom around 470 BC, probably after thePersian defeat in Greece[29] which later peaked under the leadership of KingSitalces (431–424 BC) and ofCotys I (383–359 BC). This Thracian kingdom thrived between the early 5th century BC and the early 3rd / late 1st century BC. Located in present-day Bulgaria, southeastern Romania (northern Dobruja), northeastern Greece and European Turkey, it was a tribal amalgam dominated by the Odrysians that was the first large political entity to develop in the eastern Balkans. Before the foundation of Seuthopolis in the late 4th century it had no fixed capital. Similar to theGauls and otherCeltic tribes, most Thracians are thought to have lived simply in smallfortified villages, usually on hilltops. At the commencement of thePeloponnesian war,Sitalces entered into alliance with theAthenians, and in 429 BC he invadedMacedon (then ruled byPerdiccas II) with a vast army that included 150,000 warriors from independent Thracian tribes. Cotys I on the other hand, went to war with the Athenians for the possession of theThracian Chersonese.
Thereafter theMacedonian Empire incorporated the Odrysian kingdom[30] and Thracians became an inalienable component in the extra-continental expeditions of bothPhilip II andAlexander III (the Great).
.png)
In 298 BC,Celtic tribes reached what is today Bulgaria and clashed with the forces of Macedonian kingCassander on Mount Haemos (Stara Planina). The Macedonians won the battle, but that did not stop the Celtic advancement. Many Thracian communities, weakened by the Macedonian occupation, fell under Celtic dominance.[31]
In 279 BC, one of the Celtic armies, led byComontorius, attacked Thrace and succeeded in conquering it. Comontorius established the kingdom ofTylis in what is now eastern Bulgaria.[32] The modern-day village of Tulovo bears the name of the relatively short-lived kingdom. Cultural interactions between Thracians and Celts are evidenced by several items containing elements of both cultures, such as the chariot ofMezek and almost certainly theGundestrup cauldron.[33]
Tylis lasted until 212 BC, when the Thracians managed to regain their dominant position in the region and disbanded it.[34] Small bands of Celts survived in Western Bulgaria. One such tribe were theserdi, from whichSerdica - the ancient name ofSofia - originates.[35] Even though the Celts remained in the Balkans for more than a century, their influence on the peninsula was modest.[32] By the end of the 3rd century, a new threat appeared for the people of the Thracian region in the shape of theRoman Empire.
.jpg)
In 188 BC, theRomans invadedThrace, and warfare continued until 46 AD when Rome finally conquered the region.
TheSapaean kingdom was an ancientThracian state in the southeasternBalkans that existed from the middle of the 1st century BC until 46 AD. Succeeding theClassical andHellenistic era Odrysian kingdom ofThrace, it was dominated by theSapaean tribe, who ruled from their capitalBizye in what is now northwesternTurkey. Initially only of limited relevance, its power grew significantly inthe ancient Roman world as aclient state of the lateRoman Republic. After theBattle of Actium in 31 BC,Octavian (later emperorAugustus) installed a new dynasty that proved to be highly loyal and expansive. Conquering and ruling much of Thrace on behalf of theRoman Empire, it lasted until 46 AD, when EmperorClaudius annexed the kingdom and madeThracia into aRoman province.
In 46 AD, the Romans established theprovince ofThracia. By the 4th century, the Thracians had a composite indigenous identity, asChristian "Romans" who preserved some of their ancient pagan rituals.Thraco-Romans became a dominant group in the region, and eventually yielded several military commanders and emperors such asGalerius andConstantine I the Great. Urban centres became well-developed, especially the territories ofSerdika, which today the city ofSofia, due to the abundance of mineral springs. The influx of immigrants from around the empire enriched the local cultural landscape; temples ofOsiris andIsis have been discovered near the Black Sea coast.[36] Sometime before 300 AD,Diocletian further dividedThracia into four smaller provinces.
In the 4th century, a group ofGoths arrived in northern Bulgaria and settled in and aroundNicopolis ad Istrum. There the Gothic bishopUlfilas translated theBible from Greek to Gothic, creating theGothic alphabet in the process. This was the first book written in aGermanic language, and for this reason at least one historian refers to Ulfilas as "the father of Germanic literature".[37] Thefirst Christian monastery in Europe was founded in 344 bySaint Athanasius near modern-dayChirpan following theCouncil of Serdica.[38]
Due to the rural nature of the local population, Roman control of the region remained weak. In the 5th century,Attila'sHuns attacked the territories of today's Bulgaria and pillaged many Roman settlements. By the end of the 6th century,Avars organized regular incursions into northern Bulgaria, which were a prelude to theen masse arrival of the Slavs.
During the 6th century, the traditional Greco-Roman culture was still influential, but Christian philosophy and culture were dominant and began to replace it.[39] From the 7th century, Greek became the predominant language under theEastern Roman Empire's administration, Church and society, replacing Latin.[40]
The Slavs emerged from their original homeland (most commonly thought to have been inEastern Europe) in the early 6th century and spread to most of easternCentral Europe, Eastern Europe and the Balkans, thus forming three main branches - theWest Slavs, theEast Slavs and theSouth Slavs. The easternmost South Slavs settled on the territory of modern Bulgaria during the 6th century.
Most of the Thracians were eventually Hellenized or Romanized, with some exceptions surviving in remote areas until the 5th century.[41][42] A portion of the easternSouth Slavs assimilated most of them, before the Bulgar élite incorporated these peoples into the First Bulgarian Empire.[43]
TheBulgars were a semi-nomadic people ofTurkic descent, originally fromCentral Asia, who from the 2nd century onwards dwelled in thesteppes north of theCaucasus and around the banks of riverVolga (then Itil). A branch of them gave rise to theFirst Bulgarian Empire. TheBulgars were governed by hereditarykhans. There were several aristocratic families whose members, bearing military titles, formed a governing class. Bulgars werepolytheistic, but chiefly worshiped the supreme deityTangra.
Unified under a single ruler, Kurt, or Kubrat (reigned c. 605–c. 642), the Bulgars constituted a powerful polity known to the Eastern Romans asGreat Bulgaria. This country was situated between the lower course of theDanube river to the west, theBlack Sea and theAzov Sea to the south, theKuban river to the east and the Donets river to the north. The capital wasPhanagoria, on the Azov.[44]
In 635, Kubrat signed a peace treaty with emperor Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire, expanding the Bulgar kingdom further into the Balkans. Later, Kubrat was crowned with the title Patrician by Heraclius. The kingdom never survived Kubrat's death. After several wars with the Khazars, the Bulgars were finally defeated and they migrated to the south, to the north, and mainly to the west into the Balkans, where most of the other Bulgar tribes were living, in a state vassal to the Byzantine Empire since the 5th century.
One of the successors of KhanKubrat,Kotrag led nine Bulgar tribes to the north along the banks of the river Volga in what is today Russia, creating the Kingdom of the Volga Bulgars in the late 7th century. This kingdom later became the trade and cultural centre of the north, because it stood on a very strategic position creating a monopoly over the trade among the Arabs, the Norse and the Avars. The Volga Bulgars were the first to ever defeat the Mongolic horde and protected Europe for decades, but after countless Mongol invasions the Kingdom of the Volga Bulgars was destroyed and most of its citizens slaughtered or sold as slaves in Asia.
Another successor of Khan Kubrat,Asparuh (Kotrag's brother) moved west, occupying today's southernBessarabia. After a successful war withByzantium in 680, Asparuh's khanate conquered initiallyScythia Minor and was recognised as an independent state under the subsequent treaty signed with theByzantine Empire in 681. That year is usually regarded as the year of the establishment of present-dayBulgaria and Asparuh is regarded as the first Bulgarian ruler.
Another Bulgar horde, led by Asparuh's brotherKuber, came to settle inPannonia and later into theregion of Macedonia.[45][46]
Under the reign ofAsparuh Bulgaria expanded southwest after theBattle of Ongal and Danubian Bulgaria was created.
During theLate Roman Empire, severalRoman provinces covered the territory that comprises present-day Bulgaria:Scythia (Scythia Minor),Moesia (Upper and Lower),Thrace,Macedonia (First and Second),Dacia (Coastal and Inner, both south of Danube),Dardania,Rhodope and Haemismontus, and had a mixed population ofByzantine Greeks,Thracians andDacians, most of whom spoke eitherGreek or variants ofVulgar Latin. Several consecutive waves ofSlavic migration throughout the 6th and the early 7th centuries led to a dramatic change of the demographics of the region and its almost completeSlavicisation.
The son and heir of Asparuh,Tervel, became ruler in the beginning of 8th century when the Byzantine emperorJustinian II asked Tervel for assistance in recovering his throne, for which Tervel received the regionZagore from the Empire and was paid large quantities of gold. He also received the Byzantine title "Caesar". Years later, the emperor decided to betray and attack Bulgaria, but his army was crushed in the battle ofAnhialo. After the death of Justinian II, the Bulgarians continued their crusades against the empire and in 716 they reachedConstantinople. The threat of both the Bulgarians and the Arab menace in the east, forced the new emperorTheodosius III, to sign a peace treaty with Tervel. The successor,Leo III the Isaurian had to deal with an army of 100,000 Arabs led byMaslama ibn Abd al-Malik and a fleet of 2,500 ships that were laying siege onConstantinople in the year 717. Relying on his treaty with Bulgaria, the emperor asked Khan Tervel to help him deal with the Arab invasion. Tervel accepted and the Arabs were decimated outside the walls of the city. The fleet was heavily damaged with the help ofGreek fire. The remaining ships were destroyed by a storm, in an attempt to flee. So theSecond Arab Siege of Constantinople ended. After the reign of Tervel, there were frequent changes in the ruling houses, which lead to instability and political crisis.
Decades later, in 768,Telerig of the houseDulo, ruled Bulgaria. His military campaign againstConstantine V in the year 774, proved to be unsuccessful. Thrilled with his success against Telerig, the Byzantine Emperor dispatched a fleet 2,000 ships loaded with horsemen. This expedition proved to be a failure, because of strong northern winds nearMesembria. Telerig was aware of the increased presence of spies in the capitalPliska. To decrease this Byzantine influence, he sent a letter to the emperor in which he asks for refuge inConstantinople and wants to know which Byzantine spies can help him. Knowing their names, he slaughters every agent in the capital. His rule marked the end of the political crisis.
Under the reign ofKrum (802–814) Bulgaria expanded vastly north-west and south, occupying the lands between the middle Danube andMoldova rivers, all of present-dayRomania,Sofia in 809 andAdrianople in 813, and threateningConstantinople itself. Krum implemented law reform intending to reduce poverty and strengthen social ties in his vastly enlarged state.
During the reign of KhanOmurtag (814–831), the northwestern boundaries with the Frankish Empire were firmly settled along the middle Danube. A magnificent palace, pagan temples, ruler's residence, fortress, citadel, water mains and baths were built in the Bulgarian capitalPliska, mainly of stone and brick.
Omurtag pursued policy of repression against Christians. Menologion of Basil II, glorifies Emperor Basil II showing him as a warrior defending Orthodox Christendom against the attacks of the Bulgarian Empire, whose attacks on Christians are graphically illustrated.
Under Boris I, Bulgariabecame officially Christian, and theEcumenical Patriarch agreed to allow an autonomous Bulgarian Archbishop at Pliska. Missionaries from Constantinople,Cyril and Methodius, devised theGlagolitic alphabet, which was adopted in the Bulgarian Empire around 886. The alphabet and theOld Bulgarian language that evolved fromSlavonic[47] gave rise to a rich literary and cultural activity centered around thePreslav andOhrid Literary Schools, established by order of Boris I in 886.
In the early 9th century, a new alphabet —Cyrillic — was developed at the Preslav Literary School, adapted from theGlagolitic alphabet invented bySaints Cyril and Methodius.[48] An alternative theory is that the alphabet was devised at the Ohrid Literary School by SaintCliment of Ohrid, a Bulgarian scholar and disciple of Cyril and Methodius.
By the late 9th and early 10th centuries, Bulgaria extended toEpirus andThessaly in the south,Bosnia in the west and controlled all of present-day Romania and eastern Hungary to the north reuniting with old roots. A Serbian state came into existence as a dependency of the Bulgarian Empire. Under TsarSimeon I of Bulgaria (Simeon the Great), who was educated in Constantinople, Bulgaria became again a serious threat to the Byzantine Empire. His aggressive policy was aimed at displacing Byzantium as major partner of the nomadic polities in the area. By subverting the principles of Byzantine diplomacy and political culture, Simeon turned his own kingdom into a society-structuring factor in the nomadic world.[49][50]
Simeon hoped to take Constantinople and become emperor of bothBulgarians and Greeks, and fought a series of wars with the Byzantines through his long reign (893–927). At the end of his rule the front had reached thePeloponnese in the south, making it the mostpowerful state in contemporarySoutheast Europe.[50] Simeon proclaimed himself "Tsar (Caesar) of the Bulgarians and the Romans", a title which was recognised by the Pope, but not by the Byzantine Emperor. The capitalPreslav was said to rivalConstantinople,[51][52] the new independentBulgarian Orthodox Church became the first newpatriarchate besides thePentarchy and Bulgarian translations ofChristian texts spread all over theSlavic world of the time.[53]
During the reign of Emperor Peter I (r. 927–969) aheretical movement known asBogomilism arose in Bulgaria. The heresy was named after its founder the priestBogomil whose name can be translated as dear (mil) to God (Bog). The main sources about Bogomilism in Bulgaria come from a letter of the Ecumenical PatriarchTheophylact of Constantinople to Peter I (c. 940), a treatise byCosmas the Priest (c. 970) and the anti-Bogomil council of EmperorBoril of Bulgaria (1211).[54] Bogomilism was aneo-Gnostic anddualist sect that believed that God had two sons,Jesus Christ andSatan, that represented the two principlesgood and evil.[55] God had created light and the invisible world, while Satan rebelled and created darkness, the material world and man.[55][56]
After Simeon's death, Bulgaria was weakened by external and internal wars withCroatians,Magyars,Pechenegs andSerbs and the spread of theBogomil heresy.[57][58] Two consecutiveRus' and Byzantine invasions resulted in the seizure of the capitalPreslav by the Byzantine army in 971.[59] UnderSamuil, Bulgaria somewhat recovered from these attacks and managed to conquer Serbia andDuklja.[60]
In 986, the Byzantine emperorBasil II undertook a campaign to conquer Bulgaria. After a war lasting several decades he inflicted a decisive defeat upon the Bulgarians in 1014 and completed the campaign four years later. In 1018, after the death of the last Bulgarian Tsar -Ivan Vladislav, most of Bulgaria's nobility chose to join the Eastern Roman Empire.[61] However, Bulgaria lost its independence and remained subject to Byzantium for more than a century and a half. With the collapse of the state, the Bulgarian church fell under the domination of Byzantine ecclesiastics who took control of the Ohrid Archbishopric.[62]
No evidence remains of major resistance or any uprising of the Bulgarian population or nobility in the first decade after the establishment ofByzantine rule. Given the existence of such irreconcilable opponents to the Byzantines asKrakra,Nikulitsa, Dragash and others, such apparent passivity seems difficult to explain. Some historians[63]explain this as a consequence of the concessions thatBasil II granted the Bulgarian nobility to gain their allegiance.
Basil II guaranteed the indivisibility of Bulgaria in its former geographic borders and did not officially abolish the local rule of the Bulgarian nobility, who became part ofByzantine aristocracy asarchons orstrategoi. Secondly, special charters (royal decrees) of Basil II recognised theautocephaly of theBulgarian Archbishopric of Ohrid and set up its boundaries, securing the continuation of thedioceses already existing under Samuil, their property and other privileges.[64]
After the death of Basil II the empire entered into a period of instability. In 1040,Peter Delyan organized a large-scale rebellion, but failed to restore the Bulgarian state and was killed. Shortly after, theKomnenos dynasty came into succession and halted thedecline of the empire. During this time the Byzantine state experienced a century of stability and progress.
In 1180 the last of the capable Komnenoi,Manuel I Komnenos, died and was replaced by the relatively incompetentAngeloi dynasty, allowing some Bulgarian nobles to organize an uprising. In 1185 Peter andAsen, leading nobles of supposed and contested Bulgarian, Cuman, Vlach or mixed origin, leda revolt against Byzantine rule and Peter declared himself TsarPeter II. The following year, the Byzantines were forced to recognize Bulgaria's independence. Peter styled himself "Tsar of the Bulgars, Greeks andWallachians".
.png)
Resurrected Bulgaria occupied the territory between theBlack Sea, theDanube andStara Planina, including a part of easternMacedonia,Belgrade and the valley of theMorava. It also exercised control overWallachia[65] TsarKaloyan (1197–1207) entered a union with thePapacy, thereby securing the recognition of his title of "Rex" (King) although he desired to be recognized as "Emperor" or "Tsar" of Bulgarians and Vlachs. He waged wars on theByzantine Empire and (after 1204) on the Knights of theFourth Crusade, conquering large parts ofThrace, theRhodopes, Bohemia, and Moldavia as well as the whole ofMacedonia.
In theBattle of Adrianople in 1205, Kaloyan defeated the forces of theLatin Empire and thus limited its power from the very first year of its establishment. The power of the Hungarians and to some extent the Serbs prevented significant expansion to the west and north-west. UnderIvan Asen II (1218–1241), Bulgaria once again became a regional power, occupyingBelgrade andAlbania. In an inscription from Turnovo in 1230 he entitled himself "In Christ the Lord faithful Tsar and autocrat of the Bulgarians, son of the old Asen".
The Bulgarian OrthodoxPatriarchate was restored in 1235 with approval of all eastern Patriarchates, thus putting an end to the union with thePapacy. Ivan Asen II had a reputation as a wise and humane ruler, and opened relations with theCatholic west, especiallyVenice andGenoa, to reduce the influence of the Byzantines over his country. Tarnovo became a major economic and religious centre—a "Third Rome", unlike the already declining Constantinople.[66] AsSimeon the Great during the first empire, Ivan Asen II expanded the territory to the coasts of three seas (Adriatic,Aegean andBlack), annexedMedea - the last fortress before the walls ofConstantinople, unsuccessfully besieged the city in 1235 and restored the destroyed since 1018Bulgarian Patriarchate.
The country's military and economic might declined after the end of the Asen dynasty in 1257, facing internal conflicts, constant Byzantine and Hungarian attacks andMongol domination.[43][67] TsarTeodore Svetoslav (reigned 1300–1322) restored Bulgarian prestige from 1300 onwards, but only temporarily. Political instability continued to grow, and Bulgaria gradually began to lose territory. This led to a peasant rebellion led by the swineherdIvaylo, who eventually managed to defeat the Tsar's forces and ascend the throne.
A weakened 14th-century Bulgaria faced a new threat from the south, theOttoman Turks, who crossed into Europe in 1354. By 1371, factional divisions betweenthe feudal landlords and the spread ofBogomilism had caused the Second Bulgarian Empire to split into three small tsardoms—Vidin,Tarnovo andKarvuna—and several semi-independent principalities that fought among themselves, and also with Byzantines, Hungarians, Serbs,Venetians andGenoese.
The Ottomans faced little resistance from these divided and weak Bulgarian states. In 1362 they captured Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and in 1382 they took Sofia. The Ottomans then turned their attentions to the Serbs, whom they routed atKosovo Polje in 1389. In 1393 the Ottomans occupiedTarnovo after a three-month siege. In 1396 the Tsardom ofVidin was also invaded, bringing the Second Bulgarian Empire and Bulgarian independence to an end.
In 1393, theOttomans captured Tarnovo, the capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire, after a three-month siege. In 1396, the Vidin Tsardom fell after the defeat of a Christiancrusade at theBattle of Nicopolis. With this the Ottomans finally subjugated and occupied Bulgaria.[41][68][69]APolish-Hungarian crusade commanded byWładysław III of Poland set out to free Bulgaria and the Balkans in 1444, but the Turks emerged victorious at thebattle of Varna.
The new authorities dismantled Bulgarian institutions and merged the separateBulgarian Church into theEcumenical Patriarchate inConstantinople (although a small, autocephalous Bulgarian archbishopric ofOhrid survived until January 1767). Turkish authorities destroyed most of the medieval Bulgarian fortresses to prevent rebellions. Large towns and the areas where Ottoman power predominated remained severely depopulated until the 19th century.[70][page needed]
.png)
The Ottomans did not normally require the Christians to become Muslims. Nevertheless, there were many cases of forced individual or mass Islamization, especially in theRhodopes. Bulgarians who converted to Islam, thePomaks, retained Bulgarian language, dress and some customs compatible with Islam.[41][69][page needed].
The Ottoman system began declining by the 17th century and at the end of the 18th had all but collapsed. Central government weakened over the decades and this had allowed a number of local Ottoman holders of large estates to establish personal ascendancy over separate regions.[71] During the last two decades of the 18th and first decades of the 19th centuries the Balkan Peninsula dissolved into virtual anarchy.[41][72]
Bulgarian tradition calls this period thekurdjaliistvo: armed bands of Turks calledkurdjalii plagued the area. In many regions, thousands of peasants fled from the countryside either to local towns or (more commonly) to the hills or forests; some even fled beyond theDanube toMoldova,Wallachia or southernRussia.[41][72] The decline of Ottoman authorities also allowed a gradualrevival of Bulgarian culture, which became a key component in the ideology of national liberation.
Conditions gradually improved in certain areas in the 19th century. Some towns — such asGabrovo,Tryavna,Karlovo,Koprivshtitsa,Lovech,Skopie — prospered. The Bulgarian peasants actually possessed their land, although it officially belonged to the sultan. The 19th century also brought improved communications, transportation and trade. The first factory in the Bulgarian lands opened inSliven in 1834 and the first railway system started running (betweenRousse andVarna) in 1865.
Bulgarian nationalism was emergent in the early 19th century under the influence of western ideas such asliberalism andnationalism, which trickled into the country after theFrench Revolution, mostly viaGreece. The Greek revolt against the Ottomans which began in 1821 also influenced the small Bulgarian educated class. But Greek influence was limited by the general Bulgarian resentment of Greek control of the Bulgarian Church and it was the struggle to revive an independent Bulgarian Church which first roused Bulgarian nationalist sentiment.
In 1870, aBulgarian Exarchate was created by afirman and the first Bulgarian Exarch,Antim I, became the natural leader of the emerging nation. The Constantinople Patriarch reacted byexcommunicating the Bulgarian Exarchate, which reinforced their will for independence. A struggle for political liberation from the Ottoman Empire emerged in the face of theBulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee and theInternal Revolutionary Organisation led by liberal revolutionaries such asVasil Levski,Hristo Botev andLyuben Karavelov.
_03.jpg)
In April 1876, the Bulgarians revolted in theApril Uprising. The revolt was poorly organized and started before the planned date. It was largely confined to the region ofPlovdiv, though certain districts in northern Bulgaria, in Macedonia, and in the area ofSliven also took part. The uprising was crushed by the Ottomans, who brought in irregular troops (bashi-bazouks) from outside the area. Countless villages were pillaged and tens of thousands of people were massacred, the majority of them in the insurgent towns ofBatak,Perushtitsa, andBratsigovo, all in the area of Plovdiv.
The massacres aroused a broad public reaction among liberal Europeans such asWilliam Ewart Gladstone, who launched a campaign against the "Bulgarian Horrors". The campaign was supported by many European intellectuals and public figures. The strongest reaction, however, came from Russia. The enormous public outcry which the April Uprising had caused in Europe led to theConstantinople Conference of theGreat Powers in 1876–77.
Turkey's refusal to implement the decisions of the conference gave Russia a long-waited chance to realise her long-term objectives with regard to the Ottoman Empire. Having its reputation at stake, Russiadeclared war on the Ottomans in April 1877. The Bulgarians also fought alongside the advancing Russians. Russia establisheda provisional government in Bulgaria. The Russian army and the Bulgarian Opalchentsi decisively defeated the Ottomans atShipka Pass andPleven. By January 1878 they had liberated much of the Bulgarian lands. (SeeRusso-Turkish War (1877–1878).)
TheTreaty of San Stefano was signed on 3 March 1878 and set up an autonomousBulgarian principality on the territories of the Second Bulgarian Empire, including the regions ofMoesia,Thrace andMacedonia,[73][74] though the state wasde jure only autonomous butde facto functioned independently. However, trying to preserve the balance of power in Europe and fearing the establishment of a large Russian client state in the Balkans, the otherGreat Powers were reluctant to agree to the treaty.[73]
As a result, theTreaty of Berlin (1878), under the supervision ofOtto von Bismarck of Germany andBenjamin Disraeli of Britain, revised the earlier treaty, and scaled back the proposed Bulgarian state. The new territory of Bulgaria was limited between the Danube and theStara Planina range, with its seat at the old Bulgarian capital ofVeliko Turnovo and includingSofia. This revision left large populations of ethnic Bulgarians outside the new country and defined Bulgaria's militaristic approach to foreign affairs and its participation in four wars during the first half of the 20th century.[73][75][76]
Alexander of Battenberg, a German with close ties to the Russian Tsar, was the first prince (knyaz) of modern Bulgaria from 1879. Everyone had assumed Bulgaria would become a Russian ally. To the contrary, it became a bulwark against Russian expansion, and cooperated with the British.[77] Bulgariawas attacked by Serbia in 1885, but defeated the invaders. It thereby gained respect from the great powers and defied Russia. In response Russia secured the abdication of Prince Alexander in 1886.[78]
Stefan Stambolov (1854–1895) served 1886-1894 first as regent and then prime minister for the new ruler,Ferdinand I of Bulgaria (prince 1887–1908, tsar 1908–1918). Stambolov believed that Russia's liberation of Bulgaria from Turkish rule had been an attempt by Czarist Russia to turn Bulgaria into its protectorate. His policy was characterized by the goal of preserving Bulgarian independence at all costs, working with both the Liberal majority and Conservative minority parties. During his leadership Bulgaria was transformed from an Ottoman province into a modern European state. Stambolov launched a new course in Bulgarian foreign policy, independent of the interests of any great power. His main foreign policy objective was the unification of the Bulgarian nation into a nation-state consisting of all the territories of theBulgarian Exarchate granted by the Sultan in 1870. Stambolov established close connections with the Sultan in order to enliven Bulgarian national spirit in Macedonia and to oppose Russian-backed Greek and Serbian propaganda. As a result of Stambolov's tactics, the Sultan recognised Bulgarians as the predominant people in Macedonia and gave a green light to the creation of a strong church and cultural institutions. Stambolov negotiated loans with western European countries to develop the economic and military strength of Bulgaria. In part, this was motivated by his desire to create a modern army which could secure all of the national territory. His approach toward western Europe was one of diplomatic manoeuvring. He understood the interests of the Austrian Empire in Macedonia and warned his diplomats accordingly. His domestic policy was distinguished by the defeat of terrorist groups sponsored by Russia, the strengthening of the rule of law, and rapid economic and educational growth, leading to progressive social and cultural change, and development of a modern army capable of protecting Bulgaria's independence. Stambolov was aware that Bulgaria had to be politically, militarily, and economically strong to achieve national unification. He mapped out the political course which turned Bulgaria into a strong regional power, respected by the great powers of the day. However, Bulgaria's regional leadership was short-lived. After Stambolov's death the independent course of his policy was abandoned.[79]
Bulgaria emerged from Turkish rule as a poor, underdeveloped agricultural country, with little industry or tapped natural resources. Most of the land was owned by small farmers, with peasants comprising 80% of the population of 3.8 million in 1900.Agrarianism was the dominant political philosophy in the countryside, as the peasantry organized a movement independent of any existing party. In 1899, the Bulgarian Agrarian Union was formed, bringing together rural intellectuals such as teachers with ambitious peasants. It promoted modern farming practices, as well as elementary education.[80]
The government promoted modernization, with special emphasis on building a network of elementary and secondary schools. By 1910, there were 4,800 elementary schools, 330 lyceums, 27 post-secondary educational institutions, and 113 vocational schools. From 1878 to 1933, France funded numerous libraries, research institutes, and Catholic schools throughout Bulgaria. In 1888, a university was established. It was renamed theUniversity of Sofia in 1904, where the three faculties of history and philology, physics and mathematics, and law produced civil servants for national and local government offices. It became the center of German and Russian intellectual, philosophical and theological influences.[81]
The first decade of the century saw sustained prosperity, with steady urban growth. The capital of Sofia grew by a factor of 600% - from 20,000 population in 1878 to 120,000 in 1912, primarily from peasants who arrived from the villages to become laborers, tradesman and office seekers.Macedonians used Bulgaria as a base, beginning in 1894, to agitate for independence from the Ottoman Empire. They launched a poorly planned uprising in 1903 that was brutally suppressed, and led to tens of thousands of additional refugees pouring into Bulgaria.[82]
In the years following independence, Bulgaria became increasingly militarized and was often referred to as "the BalkanPrussia", with regard to its desire to revise the Treaty of Berlin through warfare.[83][84][85] The partition of territories in the Balkans by the Great Powers without regard to ethnic composition led to a wave of discontent not only in Bulgaria, but also in its neighbouring countries. In 1911, Nationalist Prime MinisterIvan Geshov formed an alliance with Greece and Serbia to jointly attack the Ottomans and revise the existing agreements around ethnic lines.[86]
In February 1912 a secret treaty was signed between Bulgaria and Serbia and in May 1912 a similar agreement was sealed with Greece.Montenegro was also brought into the pact. The treaties provided for the partition of the regions of Macedonia and Thrace between the allies, although the lines of partition were left dangerously vague. After the Ottoman Empire refused to implement reforms in the disputed areas, the First Balkan War broke out in October 1912 at a time when the Ottomans were tied down ina major war with Italy in Libya. The allies easily defeated the Ottomans and seized most of its European territory.[86]
Bulgaria sustained the heaviest casualties of any of the allies while also making the largest territorial claims. The Serbs in particular did not agree and refused to vacate any of the territory they had seized in northern Macedonia (that is, the territory roughly corresponding to the modernRepublic of North Macedonia), saying that the Bulgarian army had failed to accomplish its pre-war goals at Adrianople (to capture it without Serbian help) and that the pre-war agreement on the division of Macedonia had to be revised. Some circles in Bulgaria inclined toward going to war with Serbia and Greece on this issue.
In June 1913, Serbia and Greece formed a new alliance against Bulgaria. The Serbian Prime MinisterNikola Pasic promised Greece Thrace to Greece [no reference] if it helped Serbia defend the territory it had captured in Macedonia; the Greek Prime MinisterEleftherios Venizelos agreed [no reference]. Seeing this as a violation of the pre-war agreements, and privately encouraged by Germany andAustria-Hungary, TsarFerdinand declared war on Serbia and Greece on June 29.
The Serbian and Greek forces were initially beaten back from Bulgaria's western border, but they quickly gained the advantage and forced Bulgaria to retreat. The fighting was very harsh, with many casualties, especially during the key Battle of Bregalnitsa. Soon afterward, theRomania entered the war on the side of Greece and Serbia, attacking Bulgaria from the north. The Ottoman Empire saw this as an opportunity to regain its lost territories and also attacked from the south-east.
Facing war on three different fronts, Bulgaria sued for peace. It was forced to relinquish most of its territorial acquisitions in Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, Adrianapole to the Ottoman Empire, and the region ofSouthern Dobruja to Romania. The two Balkan wars greatly destabilized Bulgaria, stopping its hitherto steady economic growth, and leaving 58,000 dead and over 100,000 wounded. The bitterness at the perceived betrayal of its former allies empowered political movements who demanded the restoration of Macedonia to Bulgaria.[87]
.jpg)
In the aftermath of the Balkan Wars Bulgarian opinion turned against Russia and the Western powers, by whom the Bulgarians felt betrayed. The government ofVasil Radoslavov aligned Bulgaria with the German Empire and Austria-Hungary, even though this meant becoming an ally of the Ottomans, Bulgaria's traditional enemy. But Bulgaria now had no claims against the Ottomans, whereas Serbia, Greece and Romania (allies of Britain and France) held lands perceived in Bulgaria as Bulgarian.
Bulgaria sat out the first year ofWorld War I recuperating from the Balkan Wars.[88] Germany and Austria realized they needed Bulgaria's help in order to defeat Serbia militarily thereby opening supply lines from Germany to Turkey and bolstering the Eastern Front against Russia. Bulgaria insisted on major territorial gains, especially Macedonia, which Austria was reluctant to grant until Berlin insisted. Bulgaria also negotiated with the Allies, who offered somewhat less generous terms. The Tsar decided to go with Germany and Austria and signed an alliance with them in September 1915, along with a special Bulgarian-Turkish arrangement. It envisioned that Bulgaria would dominate the Balkans after the war.[89]
Bulgaria, which had the land force in the Balkans, declared war on Serbia in October 1915. Britain, France and Italy responded by declaring war on Bulgaria. In alliance with Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottomans, Bulgaria won military victories against Serbia and Romania, occupying much of Macedonia (takingSkopje in October), advancing into Greek Macedonia, and taking Dobruja from Romania in September 1916. Thus Serbia was temporarily knocked out of the war, and Turkey was temporarily rescued from collapse.[90] By 1917, Bulgaria fielded more than a quarter of its 4.5 million population in a 1,200,000-strong army,[91][92] and inflicted heavy losses onSerbia (Kaymakchalan),Great Britain (Doiran),France (Monastir), theRussian Empire (Dobrich) and theKingdom of Romania (Tutrakan).
However, the war soon became unpopular with most Bulgarians, who suffered great economic hardship and also disliked fighting their fellow Orthodox Christians in alliance with the Muslim Ottomans. The Agrarian Party leaderAleksandur Stamboliyski was imprisoned in 1915 for his opposition to the war. TheRussian Revolution of February 1917 had a great effect in Bulgaria, spreading anti-war and anti-monarchist sentiment among the troops and in the cities. In June Radoslavov's government resigned. Mutinies broke out in the army, Stamboliyski was released and a republic was proclaimed.
In September 1918, Tsar Ferdinand abdicated in favour of his sonBoris III in order to head off anti-monarchic revolutionary tendencies. Under theTreaty of Neuilly (November 1919) Bulgaria ceded itsAegean coastline to Greece, recognized the existence ofYugoslavia, ceded nearly all of its Macedonian territory to theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and had to give Dobruja back to Romania. The country had to reduce its army to no more than 22,000 men and pay reparations exceeding $400 million. Bulgarians generally refer to the results of the treaty as the "Second National Catastrophe."[93]
Elections in March 1920 gave theAgrarians a large majority andAleksandar Stamboliyski formed Bulgaria's first peasant government. He faced huge social problems, but succeeded in carrying out many reforms, although opposition from the middle and upper classes, the landlords and officers of the army remained powerful. In March 1923, Stamboliyski signed an agreement with theKingdom of Yugoslavia recognising the new border and agreeing to suppressInternal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (VMRO), which favoured a war to regain Macedonia from Yugoslavia.[94]
This triggered a nationalist reaction andthe coup d'état of 9 June 1923 eventually resulted in Stamboliykski's assassination. An extreme right-wing government underAleksandar Tsankov took power, backed by the army and VMRO, which waged aWhite terror against Agrarians and Communists. In 1926, after the briefIncident at Petrich, the Tsar persuaded Tsankov to resign, a more moderate government underAndrey Lyapchev took office and an amnesty was proclaimed, although the Communists remained banned. A popular alliance, including the re-organised Agrarians, won the elections of 1931 under the name "Popular Bloc".[94]
In May 1934another coup took place, removing the Popular Bloc from power and establishing an authoritarian military régime headed byKimon Georgiev. A year later, TsarBoris managed to remove the military régime from power, restoring a form of parliamentary rule (without the re-establishment of the political parties) and under his own strict control. The Tsar's regime proclaimed neutrality, but gradually Bulgaria gravitated into alliance withNazi Germany andFascist Italy.
Upon the outbreak of World War II, the government of theKingdom of Bulgaria underBogdan Filov declared a position of neutrality, being determined to observe it until the end of the war, but hoping for bloodless territorial gains, especially in the lands with a significant Bulgarian population occupied by neighbouring countries after theSecond Balkan War and World War I.[citation needed] But it was clear that the central geopolitical position of Bulgaria in the Balkans would inevitably lead to strong external pressure by both sides of World War II.[95]Turkey had anon-aggression pact with Bulgaria.[96]
Bulgaria succeeded in negotiating a recovery ofSouthern Dobruja, part of Romania since 1913, in theAxis-sponsoredTreaty of Craiova on 7 September 1940, which reinforced Bulgarian hopes for solving territorial problems without direct involvement in the war. However, Bulgaria was forced to join the Axis powers in 1941, when German troops that were preparing toinvade Greece from Romania reached the Bulgarian borders and demanded permission to pass through Bulgarian territory. Threatened by direct military confrontation, Tsar Boris III had no choice but to join the fascist bloc, which was made official on 1 March 1941. There was little popular opposition, since theSoviet Union was in anon-aggression pact with Germany.[97] However the king refused to hand over the Bulgarian Jews to the Nazis, saving 50,000 lives.[98] Bulgariasent occupation forces into easternSerbia,Macedonia and northernGreece (territories it claimed as its own), where atrocities were committed and local Jews were sent todeath camps.[99] Aresistance movement organised to fight against theWehrmacht forces inBulgaria and theTsardom of Bulgaria authorities. It was mainlycommunist and pro-Soviet Union.
Bulgaria did not join theGerman invasion of the Soviet Union that began on 22 June 1941 nor did it declare war on the Soviet Union. However, despite the lack of official declarations of war by both sides, theBulgarian Navy was involved in a number of skirmishes with theSoviet Black Sea Fleet, which attacked Bulgarian shipping. Besides this, Bulgarian armed forces garrisoned in the Balkans battled various resistance groups. The Bulgarian government was forced by Germany to declare a token war on theUnited Kingdom and theUnited States on 13 December 1941, an act which resulted in thebombing of Sofia and other Bulgarian cities by Allied aircraft.
On 23 August 1944, Romania left the Axis Powers and declared war on Germany, and allowed Soviet forces to cross its territory to reach Bulgaria. On 5 September 1944 the Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria and invaded. Within three days, the Soviets occupied the northeastern part of Bulgaria along with the key port cities ofVarna andBurgas. Meanwhile, on 5 of September, Bulgaria declared war on Nazi Germany. The Bulgarian Army was ordered to offer no resistance.[100]
On 9 September 1944 in acoup the government ofPrime MinisterKonstantin Muraviev was overthrown and replaced with a government of theFatherland Front led byKimon Georgiev. On 16 September 1944 the Soviet Red Army entered Sofia.[100] In October 1944, mobilisation was ordered and Bulgaria sent three armies to fight under the operational command of the Red Army's3rd Ukrainian Front to repel theWehrmacht across Central Europe.[99] The Bulgarian Army marked several victories against the7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen (atNish), the22nd Infantry Division (atStrumica) and other German forces during the operationsin Kosovo and at Stratsin.[101][102] The Soviet army withdraws from Bulgaria after one year.[99]
From 1946 to 1991 the country was known as the People's Republic of Bulgaria (PRB) and was ruled by theBulgarian Communist Party (BCP). The BCP transformed itself in 1990, changing its name to "Bulgarian Socialist Party".
Communist leaderGeorgi Dimitrov had been in exile, mostly in the Soviet Union, since 1923. Although Stalin executed many other exiles, he was close to Dimitrov and gave him high positions. Dimitrov was arrested in Berlin and showed great courage during theReichstag fire trial of 1933. Stalin made him head of theComintern during the period of thePopular Front.[103]
After 1944 he was also close to theYugoslav Communist leaderJosip Broz Tito and believed that Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, as closely related South Slav peoples, should form a federation. This idea was not favoured by Stalin. There have long been suspicions that Dimitrov's sudden death in Moscow in July 1949 was not accidental, although this has never been proven. It coincided with Stalin's expulsion of Tito from theCominform and was followed by a "Titoist" witch hunt in Bulgaria. This culminated in theshow trial and execution of Deputy Prime MinisterTraicho Kostov (died 16 December 1949). The elderly Prime MinisterVasil Kolarov (born 1877) died in January 1950 and power then passed to a Stalinist,Vulko Chervenkov (1900–1980).
Bulgaria's Stalinist phase lasted less than five years. Under his leadership, agriculture was collectivised and a massive industrialisation campaign was launched. Bulgaria adopted acentrally planned economy, similar to those in otherCOMECON states. In the mid-1940s, whencollectivisation began, Bulgaria was a primarily agrarian state, with some 80% of its population located in rural areas.[104][105] In 1950 diplomatic relations with the U.S. were broken off. But Chervenkov's support base in the Communist Party was too narrow for him to survive long once his patron Stalin was gone. Stalin died in March 1953 and in March 1954 Chervenkov was deposed as Party Secretary with the approval of the new leadership in Moscow and replaced byTodor Zhivkov. Chervenkov stayed on as Prime Minister until April 1955, when he was dismissed and replaced byAnton Yugov.
Bulgaria experienced a rapid industrial development from the 1950s onwards. From the following decade, the country's economy appeared profoundly transformed. Although many difficulties remained, such as poor housing and inadequate urban infrastructure, modernisation was a reality. The country then turned to high technology, a sector which represented 14% of its GDP between 1985 and 1990. Its factories produce processors, hard disks, floppy disk drives and industrial robots.[106]
During the 1960s, Zhivkov initiated reforms and passed some market-oriented policies on an experimental level.[107] By the mid-1950s standards of living rose significantly, and in 1957 collective farm workers benefited from the first agricultural pension and welfare system inEastern Europe.[108]Lyudmila Zhivkova, daughter of Todor Zhivkov, promoted Bulgaria's national heritage, culture and arts on a global scale.[109] An assimilation campaign of the late 1980s directed against ethnic Turks resulted in the emigration of some 300,000Bulgarian Turks to Turkey,[110][111] which caused a significant drop in agricultural production due to the loss of labor force.[112]
By the time the impact ofMikhail Gorbachev's reform program in the Soviet Union was felt in Bulgaria in the late 1980s, the Communists, like their leader, had grown too feeble to resist the demand for change for long. In November 1989 demonstrations on ecological issues were staged in Sofia and these soon broadened into a general campaign for political reform. The Communists reacted by deposing Zhivkov and replacing him byPetar Mladenov, but this gained them only a short respite.
In February 1990 the Communist Party voluntarily gave up its monopoly on power and in June 1990 the first free elections since 1931 were held. The result was a return to power by the Communist Party, now shorn of its hardliner wing and renamed theBulgarian Socialist Party. In July 1991 anew Constitution was adopted, in which the system of government was fixed as parliamentary republic with a directly elected President and a Prime Minister accountable to the legislature.
Like the other post-Communist regimes in Eastern Europe, Bulgaria found the transition to capitalism more painful than expected. The anti-CommunistUnion of Democratic Forces (UDF) took office and between 1992 and 1994 theBerov Government carried through the privatisation of land and industry through the issue of shares in government enterprises to all citizens, but these were accompanied by massive unemployment as uncompetitive industries failed and the backward state of Bulgaria's industry and infrastructure were revealed. The Socialists portrayed themselves as the defender of the poor against the excesses of the free market.
The negative reaction against economic reform allowedZhan Videnov of the BSP to take office in 1995. By 1996 the BSP government was also in difficulties and in thepresidential election of that year the UDF'sPetar Stoyanov was elected. In 1997 the BSP government collapsed and the UDF came to power. Unemployment, however, remained high and the electorate became increasingly dissatisfied with both parties.
On 17 June 2001,Simeon II, the son ofTsar Boris III and himself the former Head of state (as Tsar of Bulgaria from 1943 to 1946), won a narrow victory in elections. The Tsar's party —National Movement Simeon II ("NMSII") — won 120 of the 240 seats in Parliament. Simeon's popularity declined quickly during his four-year rule as Prime Minister and the BSP won theelection in 2005, but could not form a single-party government and had to seek a coalition. In theparliamentary elections in July 2009,Boyko Borisov's right-centrist partyCitizens for European Development of Bulgaria won nearly 40% of the votes.
Since 1989 Bulgaria has held multi-partyelections and privatized itseconomy, but economic difficulties and a tide of corruption have led over 800,000 Bulgarians, including many qualifiedprofessionals, to emigrate in a "brain drain". The reform package introduced in 1997 restored positive economic growth, but led to rising social inequality. The political and economic system after 1989 virtually failed to improve both the living standards and create economic growth. According to a 2009 Pew Global Attitudes Project survey, 76% of Bulgarians said they were dissatisfied with the system of democracy, 63% thought that free markets did not make people better off and only 11% of Bulgarians agreed that ordinary people had benefited from the changes in 1989.[113] Furthermore, the average quality of life and economic performance actually remained lower than in the times of socialism well into the early 2000s (decade).[114]
Bulgaria became amember of NATO on 29 March 2004 and of theEuropean Union on 1 January 2007. In 2010 it was ranked 32nd (betweenGreece andLithuania) out of 181 countries in theGlobalization Index.[115] The freedom of speech and of the press are respected by the government (as of 2015), but many media outlets are beholden to major advertisers and owners with political agendas.[116] Also seeHuman rights in Bulgaria. Polls carried out seven years after the country's accession to the EU found only 15% of Bulgarians felt they had personally benefited from the membership.[117]
The oldest known gold jewelry in the world is from an archaeological site in Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria, and is over 6,000 years old (radiocarbon dated between 4,600BC and 4,200BC).
In 470/469 BC, the strategist Kimon, mentioned above, defeated the Persian fleet at the mouth of the Eurymedon river. Subsequently, it seems that the royal house of the Odrysians in Thrace gained power and in about 465/464 BC emerged from the Persian shadow. The Odrysians became aware of the power vacuum resulting from the withdrawal of the Persians and claimed back supremacy over the region inhabited by several tribes. From this period onwards an indigenous ruling dynasty is comprehensible.
Whereas Philip had exacted from the Thracians subjugated in 344 a tribute of one tenth of their produce payable to the Macedones ..., it seems that Alexander did not impose any tribute on the Triballi or on the down-river Thracians.
This, however, had little effect on the Celts, who within some years reached as far as Bulgaria. There, in 298 BC, a large body of them clashed with Cassander's army on the slopes of Mount Haemos. ... The power of the Thracians had been reduced by the Macedonians, and now much of the area fell into Celtic hands. Many placenames of that area in ancient times bear witness to the presence of Celtic strongholds ...
Their influence in Thrace (roughly modern Bulgaria and European Turkey) is very modest, with only occasional samples of armour and jewellery, but they established a kingdom known asTylis (alternatively Tyle) on the Thracian coast of the Black Sea.
A clearer example of interaction between Celts and Thacians is the famous Gundestrup cauldron, which was found in a Danish peat bog. This spectacular silver cauldron is decorated with images of Celtic gods and warriors but its workmanship is quite obviously Thracian, the product of a Thracian craftsman for a celtic patron ...
... Ulfila, the apostle of the Goths and the father of Germanic literature.
И така, през пролетта на 1018 г. "партията на капитулацията" надделяла, а Василий II безпрепятствено влязъл в тогавашната българска столица Охрид.(in Bulgarian)
The capital Tarnovo became a political, economic, cultural and religious center seen as 'the Third Rome' in contrast to Constantinople's decline after the Byzantine heartland in Asia Minor was lost to the Turks during the late 11th century.
The "Greater Bulgaria" re-established in March 1878 on the lines of the medieval Bulgarian empire after liberation from Turkish rule did not last long.
The territorial changes which the Prussia of the Balkans was condemned to undergo are neither very considerable nor unjust.
On a dit souvent de la Bulgarie qu'elle est la Prusse des Balkans
... in the 1980s ... the Communist leader, Todor Zhivkov, began a campaign of cultural assimilation that forced ethnic Turks to adopt Slavic names, closed their mosques and prayer houses and suppressed any attempts at protest. One result was the mass exodus of more than 300,000 ethnic Turks to neighboring Turkey in 1989 ...
 Years inBulgaria | |
|---|---|
| 19th century | |
| 20th century | |
| 21st century | |
| |||||||||
