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Buddhist music ismusic (Sanskrit:vàdita,saṅgīta) created for or inspired byBuddhism and includes numerousritual and non-ritual musical forms.[2] As aBuddhist art form, music has been used by Buddhists since the time ofearly Buddhism, as attested by artistic depictions in Indian sites likeSanchi. While certain early Buddhist sources contain negative attitudes to music,Mahayana sources tend to be much more positive to music, seeing it as a suitable offering to the Buddhas and as askillful means to bring sentient beings to Buddhism.[3][4]
Buddhist music retains a prominent place in manyBuddhist traditions, and is usually used forceremonial anddevotional purposes.[5] Buddhist music and chanting is often part of Buddhistrituals andfestivals in which they may be seen as offerings to the Buddha.[6]
Most Buddhist music includeschanting orsinging, accompanied by instruments.[7][2] The chanting is often of traditional texts which include:sutras,mantras,dharani,parittas, orverse compositions (such asgathas,stotras, andcaryagitis). Buddhistinstrumental music does exist, though it is less commonly heard intemples.[7]
Examples of Buddhist musical traditions include theChinese Buddhistfanbai,Newari BuddhistGunlā Bājan,Tibetan Buddhist music,Japanese Buddhistshōmyō, modern Indian Buddhistbhajans, andCambodianSmot chanting. As there are many different traditions of Buddhist music and chanting, themusical instruments used vary widely, from solely relying on thehuman voice, to many types of classic instruments used inAsian music (such as the ancient Indianveena) as well as modern instruments (keyboards,guitars, etc).
In the modernacademy, the study of Buddhist music, sometimes known as Buddhist musicology, has become its own field of academic research.[8]
In Buddhism, chanting is a traditionalBuddhist devotional practice, as well as a means of enhancing and preparing the mind for silentmeditation.[9] It is a common part of formal group practice (in either alay ormonastic context). Some forms of Buddhism also use chanting for ritualistic,apotropaic or othermagical purposes.
InMahayana Buddhism, the offering of music is a traditional part of devotional offerings to the Buddhas (others include water, flowers, and light).[9][10] The offering of music is thus considered to bring goodmerit. The idea of music as an offering to the Buddhas can be found in various Mahayana sutras. Common instruments included theveena, drums, andflutes (venu).
Furthermore, in some Mahayana sources, Buddhist music is considered to be a skillful means (upaya), a way to guide people to the Buddhist path and to teach them the Buddha's teachings. Some Mahayana sutras also depict thePure Lands as filled with divine music.[6][9]
Various passages from theearly Buddhist texts contain criticisms of musical performance directly from theBuddha. The main criticism is that music leads to sensedesire and attachment, and is thus ahindrance to meditative concentration (samadhi), and to peace of mind. However, there are other passages in which the Buddha praises music and chanting.
Aside from textual sources, there are numerous depictions of musicians and musical instruments at ancient Indian Buddhist sites likeSanchi, andAmaravati, as well as at variousGreco-Buddhist sites inBuddhist Gandhara, such asChakhil-i-Ghoundi.
In theGhitassara Sutta (Anguttara Nikaya 5.209), theBuddha admonishesBuddhist monks for reciting the teaching (Dhamma) in a musical way:
Meanwhile, in theSigalovada Sutta, a sutta addressed to laypersons, music is included as a negative sense desire:
There are these six drawbacks of frequenting festivals. You're always thinking: 'Where's the dancing? Where's the singing? Where's the music? Where are the stories? Where's the applause? Where are the kettledrums?'[12]
Early Buddhist sources include the practice of uposatha, in which laypersons observe a set ofeight precepts. The seventh of these states one should abstain from wordly entertainments, shows and music.[13] TheUposatha Sutta asks Buddhists to reflect how noble disciples "have given up singing and dancing, the playing of musical instruments and the watching of entertainments, which are stumbling blocks to that which is wholesome."[14]
The canonicalBuddhist Vinayas (monastic codes) generally reject the use of musical chanting and singing for reciting the Buddhist scriptures, since it was seen as a sensuous distraction.[15] They are prohibit monks and nuns from listening to or performing music since it is connected with sensual pleasure.[3]
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Certain passages in the early Buddhists are much more positive about music.Digha Nikaya sutta no. 21 (Sakka's Questions) and its Chinese parallel at DA 14, contains a passage in which agandharva (a celestial musician) named Pañcaśikha sings some verses to the Buddha accompanied by a lute, and the Buddha approves of it.[16][3] In theDirgha Agama version, the Buddha listens and praises Pañcaśikha saying:
Good, Pañcaśikha, good! You're able to praise the Tathāgata with your clear voice and harmonious cymophane lute. The sound of both your lute and voice are neither long or short. Their compassion and gracefulness moves people's hearts. Your song is replete with many meanings and explains the bonds of desire, the religious life, the ascetic, and Nirvāṇa![17]
TheMahaparinibbana sutta states that before the death of the Buddha, "heavenly music played in the sky in honor of the Realized One. And heavenly choirs sang in the sky in honor of the Realized One."[18] After the Buddha's death, laypeople venerated the Buddha "with dance and song and music and garlands and fragrances".[18] In the Chinese version of theMahaparanirvana sutra, the Buddha approves of devotional practices through music when he states "there are four kinds of people in the world who should be memorialized by building a shrine and providing incense, flowers, silk canopies, and music there". These four types of people are said to be: tathāgatas (Buddhas), pratyekabuddhas, sravakas (disciples) and noble wheel-turning kings.[19]
TheMahāli Sutta (DN 6) mentions that through a certain samadhi, one may hear heavenly sounds from thedeva realms.[13]
Other sources, like theJatakas, andAvadanas, contain various stories which depict music in a positive light. For example, in one story, a bird named Cittapatta sang songs to the past BuddhaVipassī, and he eventually gained a good rebirth and became a god, and then an arahant.[13] Another story about a bird singing to a Buddha is found in theTheragāthā commentary (aṭṭhakathā), this time, the past BuddhaKrakucchanda is featured. Similarly, when Sikhī Buddha died, a tree dwelling spirit offered flowers and instrumental music, and this contributed to his future nirvana (Therapadana 118).[13]
One Indian Buddhist figure who was well known as a musician was the 2nd century poetAśvaghoṣa.[20] Both Tibetan (Taranatha) and Chinese sources mention that he was also a great musician and traveled with a choir.[20][21][22]Xuanzang (7th century) mentions that when he traveled to India, the music of Aśvaghoṣa was still remembered as having the power to impress upon people the truth of impermanence.[23]
One of his musical hymns, theGaṇḍīstotragāthā (Chinese:Kien-ch'ui-fan-tsan,Hymn on the Bell), has survived in Chinese transliteration and Tibetan translation (which also include some musical notation).[24][25] Musical references are also quite common in theBuddhacarita, which indicates the author was knowledgeable about Indian music, its styles, instruments, notes, and so forth.[26]
According to the Theravada commentary to theLong Discourses, theDīgha-nikāya-aṭṭhakathā (Sumaṅgalavilāsinī), kingAśoka's consort Asandhimittā attained stream entry when she listened to akalavīka bird's song and imagined that it was the sweet voice of the Buddha (DA ii.453).[13] One Theravada commentary on theSubhāsita Sutta (Sn 3.3) contains a story about sixty monks who attained arahantship in Sri Lanka after hearing a slave woman sing a song about birth, old age, and death.[13] According to the Theravada commentatorBuddhaghosa, adapting songs to the Dhamma is proper. His Vinaya Commentary also mentions certain 'songs of sacred festivals' (sādhukīḷitagītaṃ) which sing of the qualities of the Three Jewels (Vinaya Commentary iv.925).[13]
In theTheravada tradition, chanting of certain texts calledparittas are considered to have the power to "avert illness or danger, to ward off the influence of malignant beings, to obtain protection and deliverance from evil, and to promote health, prosperity, welfare, and well-being."[27] There are several reasons that chanting these texts have power. Firstly, they are considered to be an "act of truth" (saccakiriya). According to this theory, words which speak of the truth of the Dharma are considered to have magical power.[27] Furthermore, parittas are also connected with morality (sila) and kindness (metta) and the very sound of their chanting is said to calm the mind.[27]
Mahayana sutras often contain positive depictions of music, which is often seen as a wholesome offering with which to venerate the Buddhas which can generatemerit and prompt theblessings of the Buddhas.[28] In several Mahayana sutras, music is found as a common offering given by humans or devas to the Buddha. Examples can be found in theLotus Sutra and theLankavatara Sutra. In theLotus Sutra, music is found in various parts of the text as a common offering to the Buddha (along with other offerings such as flowers andincense).[29] One example from chapter three states:
Śakra, the lord of devas, and Brahma, together with innumerable deva-putras also made offerings to the Buddha of their heavenly beautiful garments, heavenly māndārava flowers, and great māndārava flowers. Their heavenly garments floated and fluttered in the air, while in the sky the devas played hundreds of thousands of myriads of kinds of music together at one time.[30]
Furthermore,Lotus sutra chapter two states:
If someone employs persons to play music, striking drums or blowing horns or conch shells, playing pipes, flutes, zithers, harps, balloon guitars, cymbals and gongs, and if these many kinds of wonderful notes are intended wholly as an offering; or if one with a joyful mind sings a song in praise of the Buddha's virtue, even if it is just one small note, then all who do these things have attained the Buddha way.[28]
Chapter twenty four of theLotus Sutra is named after a musical bodhisattva named Gadgadasvara (Wonderful Voice).[31] This bodhisattva travels to our world and beautiful musical sounds follow him everywhere. The Buddha then explains that this bodhisattva "paid homage to the Buddha Meghadundubhisvararāja with a hundred thousand kinds of music and eighty-four thousand seven-jeweled bowls" for twelve thousand years. It is said that because of the roots of merit cultivated by this devotional practice, he attained rebirth in another Buddha's pure land and gained transcendent powers.[32] In later sources, the bodhisattva Wonderful Voice (Jp. Myōon) became identified with Saraswati / Benzaiten.[3]
TheLankavatara sutra also contains examples of using music to praise and venerate the Buddha. In the first chapter,Ravana and his attendants first greet Shakyamuni Buddha by singing verses of praise which were "gracefully accompanied by music, a lute studded with coral and cat's eye, slung at the side by means of priceless perfumed pale cloth and played with a sapphire plectrum, producing a melody ranging through all the notes of the scale."[33] TheLonger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra also contains passages in which music is part of a set of devotional offerings for Buddhas and bodhisattvas. In one passage, a group of bodhisattvas is said to "play heavenly music and praise the virtues of the buddhas with hymns accompanied by wonderful sounds".[34]
Apart from presenting music as an offering to the Buddha, some Mahayana sources also depict music as askillful means employed by the Buddhas to impart theBuddha Dharma in their pure lands.[3] TheGolden Light Sutra also describes the bodhisattva-deviSaraswati (Benzaiten) as a goddess of music whose voice can lead beings to salvation. According to Fabio Rambelli, "here, Benzaiten's voice is not an offering, but a tool to induce beings to accept Buddhism."[3]
In theLonger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, thepure land of BuddhaAmitabha (Sukhavati) is filled with magical music which arises from theBodhi tree of Amitabha, from jeweled trees (ratnavṛkṣa) and from instruments that play by themselves.[35] In theLonger Sukhāvatīvyūha, Amitabha's bodhi tree produces "innumerable exquisite Dharma sounds", "which spread far and wide, pervading all the other buddha lands in the ten directions".[36] The sutra further states:
Those who hear the sounds attain penetrating insight into dharmas and dwell in the stage of non-retrogression. Until they attain buddhahood, their senses of hearing will remain clear and sharp and they will not suffer from any pain or sickness... Again, in that land, there are thousands of varieties of spontaneous music, which are all, without exception, sounds of the Dharma. They are clear and serene, full of depth and resonance, delicate, and harmonious; they are the most excellent sounds in all the worlds of the ten directions.[36]
Furthermore, according to Rambelli, the sutra presents this divine music "not only an adornment of the Pure Land, but a veritable manifestation of the Buddha Amida endowed with the power to lead beings to the Land of Bliss."[3]
Perhaps the most detailed Mahayanaphilosophy of music is found in theSutra of the Questions by Druma, King of the Kinnara (*Druma-kiṃnara-rāja-paripṛcchā), which was first translated byLokakṣema (Taisho no. 624), and then again translated byKumārajīva in the fifth century (Taisho no. 624).[3]
Various passages in the sutra describe numerous performances of heavenly music, most of them performed by King Druma, thevīnā playing king of thekinnaras (Skt. Kiṃnara), and his retinue of musicians (which includedevas, kinnaras andgandharvas). In some passages, the Buddha himself preaches through song.[3] Druma's music is presented as so powerful that it can be heard all over the universe, it drives all the devas in the desire realm to come see the Buddha and makes all those present (except a few high level bodhisattvas), start dancing spontaneously.[3]
Druma also plays a song about emptiness which leads eight thousand bodhisattvas to attain the patience of the non-arising of all dharmas.[3] When asked where this beautiful song came from, Druma explains his philosophy of music, which is encapsulated in the following passage:
All sounds emerge from empty space. Sound has the nature ofemptiness: when you finish hearing it, it disappears; after it disappears, it abides in emptiness. Therefore, all dharmas, whether they are taught or not, are emptiness. All dharmas are like sound. If one teaches the dharmas through sound, the dharmas cannot be attained in sound itself. Dharmas themselves cannot be said; what is called speech is only sound. Therefore, sound is originally non-abiding anywhere [i.e., is non-substantial], thus it is not real and solid, and its reality only lies in its name. If so, and paradoxically, its reality is indestructible, has no origin and thus is not subject to extinction, therefore it is pure, immaculate, and incorruptible, like light and the mind; it is all-surpassing and beyond signs – that is, sound is the condition of enlightenment; when a bodhisattva is in that condition, he has attained the endurance of the non-origination of dharmas […] All discourses are only sound/voice; one produces these sounds simply because one wants to talk about something else than voice. This endurance of the non-origination of dharmas cannot be explained nor heard. Why? Because its meaning is unattainable, that is, absent.[3]
According to Rambelli, the gist of this passage is that all Buddhist sutras, teachings and also music "are simply voiced sounds orsignifiers; their signifieds are not inherent in those sounds and are nowhere to be found (they are unattainable)...In more technical terms, music, like language, is not a symbol of anything (meaning isontologically distinct and separate from sound); rather, music is both an index and an icon (a faithful reproduction) of emptiness – in other words, music is a concrete example, in our experiential field, of emptiness."[3] Rambelli also notes that Druma's instrument, the veena, is made ofberyl (vaiḍūrya), which is a transparent light green stone. Transparency is also a metaphor for emptiness in Indian sources. Hence, Druma is singing about emptiness with an instrument that also symbolizes emptiness.[3]
The Buddha confirms that Druma is highly advanced in his use of music as a skillful means and that through music he can lead countless beings to omniscience.[3] At another part of the sutra, the Buddha manifests seven giant trees which emit light and music all over the universe and then himself produces a song accompanied by music which clarifies all the doubts of the bodhisattvas.[3] The Buddha also explains to the kinnaras that they do not need to abandon their musical arts to practice the path, because their musical sounds protect the Dharma.[3]
According to Rambelli, this sutra was influential in Japanese Buddhism, where it was used to defend the activities of Buddhist musicians and performing artists not just as an offering, but as a kind of self-cultivation.[3]
The Indian Buddhisttantric literature includes music, song and dance as common ritual offerings to tantric deities.[37][38]
The use of singing and dancing as a spiritual practice is promoted in variousBuddhist tantras, for example, singing and dancing is an important practice in theHevajra Tantra, which states:
If songs are sung from bliss, they are supreme vajra-songs. When bliss arises, dance for the sake of liberation, dancing the adamantine postures with full awareness...The songs are mantra and the dance is meditation; therefore a practitioner of yoga must ever always sing and dance.[39]
TheHevajra Tantra further states that this is to be performed "with mindfulness, distracted, meditating with impassioned mind, in a state of unwavering awareness."[39] Similarly, theSarvabuddhasamāyoga Tantra (Union of all the Buddhas Tantra) states:
The excellent song of the manifestations of the Buddha, for those knowing thesemudras, is the excellent cause of perfection, accomplishes all the esoteric acts, continually brings all the physical necessities, and thus all the forms of increase of goods. So, having sun the songs with six varieties of tunes, sing the divinity's song.[40]
An inscription fromGaya also shows that during theTantric age, sophisticated styles of song and dance offerings were made in Buddhist temples with the support of Indian royalty.[40]
Indian Buddhistmahasiddhas and yogis were known to sing tantric songs, variously calledDohā,Vajragīti, andCaryāgīti.[41][42] IndianVajrayana sources state that these songs, along with music and dance, were part of tantric Buddhist feasts (ganachakras, esoteric gatherings and celebrations).[43][44] These Carya songs contained esoteric instructions on the Vajrayana Buddhist view and practice.[45] Many esoteric references were communicated through coded language.[46] Many of these songs survive in Tibetan translation. One collection by Viraprakasa has songs from the eighty four mahasiddhas, and is known asVajra Songs: The Heart Realizations of the Eighty-four Mahasiddhas.[47] A similar genre of tantric Buddhist songs have survived in the proto-Bengali–AssameseCharyapadas.[48][non-primary source needed][49]
One famous tantric Buddhist musician was the Mahāsiddha Vīṇāpa (the vina player), one of the 84 mahasiddhas. He was known for using the playing of the vina as a form of spiritual practice (sadhana).[50] According to the Buddhist sources, his guru Buddhapa taught Vinapa to meditate as follows: "meditate upon the sound of your instrument free of all distinction between the sound struck and the mental impression; cease all mental interference with the sound, all conceptualization and all critical and judgemental thought, so that you contemplate only pure sound."[50] After practicing this method for nine years, Vinapa is said to have attained the realization ofMahamudra.[50] In one song by Vinapa, he says "practicing the unborn, unstruck sound, I, Vinapa, lost my self."[50]
Tibetan Buddhists also composed their own prayers and "vajra songs" as well as developing new musical forms, like Tibetanovertone singing ("throat singing").[51] Some Tibetan Buddhist traditions, like theChod tradition ofMachik Labdrön (1055–1153), still include the singing of songs with instrumental accompaniment as part of their ritual practices.[52] One contemporary figure known for his yogic songs isKhenpo Tsultrim Gyamtso.[53] According to Ari Goldfield and Rose Taylor,
Singing Dharma songs is an extraodinarily skillful and enjoyable Buddhist practice technique that Rinpoche has introduced to his students in a variety of ways: Rinpoche himself sings regularly; he has given illuminating explanations of the profound songs of the great masters; has composed many of his own songs; and has instructed and encouraged students to translate these songs into their own languages and sing them in their own national and cultural melodies.[53]
Buddhist music is a central feature ofEast Asian Buddhism, where it is seen as an important offering to the Buddhas, as a skillful means of teaching Buddhism and also as a kind of meditation.[54]
In hisNanhai Ji Gui Zhuan (Commentaries on Dharma from the South Sea), the Chinese Tang dynasty monkYi Jing (635-713) presented six merits of Buddhist chanting: "1) understanding Buddha's great virtue better; 2) becoming well versed in Buddhist sutras; 3) purifying organ of speech; 4) improving the thoracic cavity; 5) inducing calm and confidence in the multitude; and 6) longevity."[54]
Heng Sure writes that "Buddhist music, like all things Buddhist, aims to nurture bothwisdom andblessings"..."when music is used to praise the Triple Jewel and the Bodhisattvas, it creates blessings andmerit."[55] He also argues that Buddhist musical chanting (as opposed to mundane music which is often about sensuality and courtship) can aid one in developing the meditative quality ofsamadhi.[55] Because of this, Buddhist music is seen as exempt from the precept that states monks and nuns must avoid music.[55] Furthermore, Heng Sure also writes that "we can use music to praise the Triple Jewel and the Bodhisattvas; we use it to teach principle, to gather in and harmonize the conscious awareness of an audience, to accompany sutra text, to restate sutra text in verse. In the end as in the beginning, music is magic. Whether one can use it or not depends on your samadhi."[55]
Heng Sure also cites theShurangama Sutra which states that listening to sounds with the ear is the most effective method for awakening, since "the substance of the teaching resides purely in sound." Thus, also sounds are part of the mundane world, "hearing them clearly and discriminating them accurately remains our best avenue for awakening here in the world. Someone on the Bodhisattva Path stays within the world, and by letting go the habit of loving or hating sounds, cultivates stillness right within the movement of the busy marketplace."[55]
According toJohn Daido Loori, the Japanese Zen masterDōgen also defended chanting and Zen liturgy as an important practice. According to Dōgen, the sounds and words of the sutras are metaphors which point to the ultimate, but they are also non-dual with ultimate reality itself. TheShobogenzo states, "seeing forms with the whole body-and-mind, hearing sounds with the whole body-and-mind, one understands them intimately".[56] As such, if we practice Buddhist liturgy by chanting and listening with one's "whole body-and-mind", one eliminates the space between the self and the chants.[57][58] In this way, developing an intimate practice of chanting can be a skillful means to allow the practitioner to transcend all conceptions of self and other and to experience the non-dual ultimate truth.[59]
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Most forms of Buddhist music isvocal music and religiouschanting, often accompanied by musical instruments. A Buddhist chant is a form of musical verse or recitation, in some ways analogous to thereligious musics andhymns of other faiths.
There are numerous traditions of Buddhist chanting, singing, and music in all three major schools of Buddhism:Theravada,East Asian Buddhism, and HimalayanVajrayana.
The basis for mostTheravada chants is thePali Canon, though there are traditions which use more recent compositions. TheMahayana andVajrayana traditions draw from a wider range of sources, like theMahayana texts, theBuddhist tantric literature and other sources.
East Asian Buddhist music is known asfanbai in Chinese and includes numerous genres.[60] Ancient Chinese musical theory held that good music brought harmony to the world andConfucian thinking held that music was useful for self cultivation.[61][54] InChinese Buddhism, these positive views of music combined with the Mahayana Buddhist views of music as a meritorious offering and a skillful means.
According to Trân Van Khê, East Asian Buddhist music is mainly ritualisticvocal music, mostly the chanting of traditionaldharanis and sutras like theHeart Sutra,Lotus Sutra, or theAmitabha sutras. However, instrumental music is sometimes heard during special ceremonies, such as funerals.[60] Rituals in which Buddhist music may be heard includerepentance ceremonies and rites like theShuilu Fahui and theYujia Yankou.
Instruments which are found in East Asian Buddhist music include: thepipa,erhu,yangqin,biwa, oboe (ken), transverse flute (sao),mouth organ, ceremonial drums (like thetaiko, or the Vietnamese trong nhac), gongs, bells, theVietnamese bow lute, and thetap pyong so (Korean).[60]
Chinese Buddhist chanting is known asfanbai, which means "Voice of Brahma". This style of chanting is typically performed during ritual contexts such asdaily liturgical services or ceremonies such as theShuilu Fahui ceremony and theDabei Chan. Since the melodies and tunes used for this style of recitation tends to be passed on through oral tradition, various regional variations of fanbai exists in different parts of China. One example is Shangjiang-style of fanbai (上江腔梵唄) in the southwest, which is still preserved atWenshu Temple inChengdu and Huayan Temple inChongqing. Another example isTaiwan, where two main sub-traditions of fanbai exists: "Gushan style" (鼓山調, lit: "Mount Gu") and "Haichaoyin style" (海潮音, lit: "Sound of ocean waves"). Traditional Chinese musical instruments are also frequently employed as accompaniment, such as thegong, themuyu (木魚, wooden fish), theqing (磬, sounding stones), thegu (鼓, drums),zhong (鐘, bells) andchazi (镲仔, cymbals).[62][63][64]
The first Chinese Buddhist music appeared in theThree Kingdoms period and consisted of sutra recitation (zhuandu) andfanbai which drew on Buddhist stories from the scriptures and were set toChinese music.[65] The first well known figure to promote Buddhist music in China was the translatorZhi Qian, who compliedSung Chants for Sakra Accompanied by Qin Music (Dishi yuerenban zheqin gebai).[65] Most of this early Buddhist music were solemn chants and had no instrumental accompaniment.[65]
Buddhist music was developed and promoted byEmperor Wu of Liang, who himself composed pieces of Buddhist music, introduced the genre to his court and promoted large scale Dharma assemblies which included music and chanting.[66] During theSix Dynasties period, Buddhist music flourished.The Tale of the Luoyang Temple describes the Jingle Temple atLuoyang thus: "even in the six cloisters, female musicians were installed. Their singing echoed around the rafters. The sleeves of the dancers gently fluttered. The music of zithers and flutes resounded loud and clear, enchanting the hearers. When the temple's thousand images of Buddha were paraded through the streets clouds of incense hung like a dense fog, the sacred music shook Heaven and Earth, the players ranced and danced, all was a festival."[67]
Buddhist music rose to further prominence in Buddhist temples during theSui andTang dynasties when it became widely influential onChinese culture.[65] This flowering of Buddhist music led to the development of new genres likeshuochang storytelling andbianwen storytelling.[65]
There were three main forms of Tang Buddhist music: hymns recited in temples for ritual services,proselytizing music used in popular preaching to laypeople (sujiang) and popular Buddhist songs (foqu) used in celebrations and temple activities.[65]
Popular forms of Buddhist music were influenced byCentral Asian music of theWestern Regions and also drew on local Chinese folk and popular music traditions.[65] Buddhist music played a key role in Chinese Buddhist efforts to proselytize to laypersons.[65] Popular preaching (sujiang) drew on local folk culture, stories, and music and this genre became very popular among the masses. Soon specialized venues called bianchang developed as well as troupes of performers (yinsheng) who specialized in popular Buddhist music. Temples often had their own yinsheng groups and even the imperial court had their own groups of Buddhist musicians.[68] These court Buddhist musicians famously took part in a very large ceremony during the funeral ofXuanzang.[68]
Popular Tang Buddhist songs (foqu) which were used for worship and for large celebrations are recorded in various sources includingRecord of the Jiegu, theTang Huiyao and Cheng Yang'sYue-shu and include titles such asMaitreya Foqu (Mile Foqu),Suryaprabha Foqu (Riguang Foqu) andTathagata Foqu (Rulai Foqu). These songs remained influential into theSong dynasty period.[65]
Subsequent dynasties from theSong through to theQing saw the further popularization of fanbai and Buddhist music, which were highly influential on secular musical styles of the times, inspiring developments and innovations in styles of musical composition such as thecipai and thequpai.
Fanbai and Buddhist music remain an important part of the practice of contemporaryChinese Mahayana Buddhism. The American Buddhist monkHeng Sure describes the modern practice of chanting in Chinese Buddhist monasteries as follows:
Buddhist monasteries are musical environments. These new monks and nuns in the Mahayana tradition would on that day and every day, spend a minimum of two and a half hours in the Buddha Hall chanting, and on holidays or sessions, the ceremonies can last for twelve hours, sometimes for twenty-one days. The regular liturgical chanting starts at 4:00 AM with half an hour of mantras andDharanis, then includes chanting of sutras, praises, Buddha's names, invocations, repentances, dedications, blessings, and protection verses. The tunes and music modes are in some cases 1400 years old. They are healing, and when sung with a sincere heart, have the power to bring the mind to single-pointed clarity and stillness.[55]
Korean Buddhist musical chanting is called pomp'ae (Beompae). There are two main styles chissori (grand elaborated style) and the hossori (simple style).[60] The chanted text may be in Chinese, Sanskrit or in Korean, depending on the style.[60]
Korean musical chanting which is accompanied by dance is called chak pop. There are three types: na bi ch'um, the dance of the butterflies; para ch'um, the dance of the cymbals; and pop go ch'um, the ceremonial drum dance.[60]
Furthermore, some forms of instrumental music are inspired by Buddhism, including the famousYongsan hoe sang.[60][69][70]
Japanese Buddhism includes various traditions of chanting, sutra recitation (dokyō) and Buddhist music. The vocal element is generally the most important element of Japanese Buddhist music.[72] Chanting of the names of the Buddha (especially popular is thenembutsu), and of specific sutras (such as parts of theLotus Sutra) is a central practice in various traditions of Japanese Buddhism. This may be accompanied by drumming,standing bells, or other instruments.[71][73] Each school of Japanese Buddhism has its own style of chanting and musical instrumentation which is used in different rituals and annual observations.[73]
One important tradition of Japanese Buddhist choral music isshōmyō (声明, lit. "bright voice"), which dates from the 12th century.[2] This is a monophonal musical style performed by Buddhist monks which is especially important in theTendai,Obaku, andShingon sects.[74][72] Shōmyō was influenced by Chinese Buddhist chanting which was introduced to Japan in the 8th century. Shōmyō is most often amelismatic singing unaccompanied by instrumentation, though sometimes percussion instruments (drums, clappers, gongs, bells or cymbals) may be used.[72] One of the first performances of shōmyō was in 752, when hundreds of monks atTōdai-ji performed hymns likePraise of the Tathagata (Nyoraibai),Falling Flowers (Sange),Sanskrit Sound (Bonnon), andSounding Staff (Shakujo) during thekaigen ceremony for theDaibutsu (大仏, lit: "Great Buddha").[2] One important classic collection of shōmyō chants is theGyosan Shōmyō Rokkan jō, compiled by Kekan (a disciple ofRyōnin) in 1173. It includes chants in Sanskrit, Chinese and Japanese, and it remains a major source of chants for the Tendai school.[60]
A rarer tradition of shōmyō is performed by a solitary monk accompanied by abiwa (the Japanese short necked lute).[60] There are two main styles of shōmyō: ryokyoku and rikkyoku, described as difficult and easy to remember, respectively.
Another genre of Japanese Buddhist music isKōshiki (Japanese:講式), a kind of ritual narrative music which originated in theTendai school and spread to other Buddhist traditions, such asZen Buddhism.[75][76][77][78][79] Eventually all Japanese Buddhist schools had kōshiki repertoires.[80] Japanese chanted poetryshigin (詩吟) is also another form of Buddhist music found in Japan. Other forms includehyobyaku (pronouncement of intention),saimon (offertory declaration), andwasan (Japanese Hymns).[81]
TheMeiji period (1868–1912) saw much innovation in Japanese Buddhist music. Japanese Buddhists modernized many of their music, often borrowing fromWestern musical styles.[73] Traditional styles like shomyo were still preserved however and are still heard in Japanese Buddhist temples today.[73] In the 2000s, Japanese clergy also began to adopt traditional Buddhist texts to modern musical genres like rock and pop music. Modern technology likevocaloids,robots, and keyboards have also been used to promote Buddhist chanting and many of these new musical compositions have spread through the internet.[71]
Honkyoku (本曲) are the pieces ofshakuhachi orhocchiku music originally played by wandering Japanese Zen monks calledKomuso. Komuso temples were abolished in 1871, but their honkyoku music remains popular in modern Japan. Komuso played honkyoku as a meditative practice and for alms as early as the 13th century. In the 18th century, a Komuso namedKinko Kurosawa of the ZenFuke sect was commissioned to travel throughout Japan and collect these musical pieces. The results of several years of travel and compilation were thirty-six pieces known as theKinko-Ryu Honkyoku.
The music ofNepalese Buddhism reflects native Nepalese, Tibetan and Indian musical traditions.[82]Newar Buddhism includes a rich musical tradition which has been subject to numerous ethnographic studies.[83] Newar musical genres include dhāpā, cācā, and bājans.[84]Dāphā is the oldest surviving devotional musical genre of Nepal, having originated in the 17th century.[85] It is an important role of many Newar men to practice with a local musical group.[84]
Bhajans (bājans) are popular among both Buddhists and Hindus in Nepal, and they are performed by amateurs as well as by trained musicians.[86] These are three main types of Buddhist bājans found in Nepalese Buddhism: mu dhimay bājans,gumlā bājans and gyānmālā bājans.[87] Dhimay Bājan is a popular form performed by Newar farmers, who often worship both Buddhist and Hindu deities. It is performed by one or more drummers using an oversized drum (dhimay).[87]
Gunlā Bājan is another popular genre which is commonly found during various religious processions and during the holy month of Gumlā.[88][89][87] It is commonly practiced by groups who meet at theSvayambhū stūpa hill and circumambulate the stūpa, also visiting other sites in town. The ensembles use the small nāykhī and the larger dhā drums as well as cymbals, and woodwinds and brass instruments are also sometimes added.[87]
The most recent style is a modern bhajan style called gyānmālā bājan which Newar Buddhists adopted from modern Indian bhajans. This style uses the Indian harmonium and tabla, and sometimes other less traditional instruments like keyboards orguitars.[84][86][87] TheGyānmālā Bhajan society is one popular Buddhist group which is influential in the development of this modern Newari language tradition.[86] In the 20th century, numerous Newari Buddhist authors composed new bhajans in Newari, some of them focus on teaching the Dharma, and others have a more devotional Indianbhakti style.[86]
The earliest known Bengali songs are the BuddhistCharyapadas (Songs of realization, c. 900–1100 CE) of the medieval tantric mystics.[91][92]
TheBaul tradition, while not a Buddhist tradition per se, still makes use of some of the Bengali BuddhistSahaja tradition's Carya songs.[93]
The devotional Buddhist music ofBengali Buddhists is often calledBuddha-samkirtan orBuddha kirtan.[94][95] It is a common practice among theBarua Buddhists ofBangladesh.[95]
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TheIndo-Tibetan Buddhist tradition (found inTibet,Bhutan, some north Indian states, and in theTibetan diaspora) includes numerous musical elements, and vocal chanting accompanied by various instruments is a central feature ofHimalayan Buddhism.[96] The main distinction is between the musical traditions practiced by monastics in Buddhist monasteries and the musical traditions practiced by laypersons.[97]
The singing of popular songs (mostly calledglu) by Buddhist laypersons of the Himalayan regions is widespread. Most are secular, butchos-glu (dharma songs) are also sung. Sometimes this may be accompanied by a few instruments like thedra-nyen lute, thechiwang fiddle; and the duct flute (gling-bu).[98] The termmgur meanwhile, refers specifically to devotional Buddhist songs, which have been traditionally used to teach Buddhism.[99]
One of the most famous songwriter of these was the great yogiMilarepa, and hisHundred Thousand Songs remains popular today.[99] Another influential Tibetan songwriter and musician was Gotsangpa Gonpo Dorje (1189–1258). He was originally a travelling performance artist, apakshi, who became an influential lama and founded the Upper Druk (stod 'brug) lineage of theDrukpa Kagyu school.[100]
There are also other traditions of musicians, including mendicant musicians, and epic storytellers (Sgrung-mkhan, who often focus on theEpic of King Gesar) and the Manipa (who sing mgur and mantras, including the famousMani mantra).[99]
Musical chanting, most often inTibetan, is an integral part of Tibetan Buddhism. These chants may be simple or complex recitations of sacred texts for various occasions. Chanting accompanied by a melody (dbyangs) is often used as part of Tibetan Buddhist rituals, ceremonies, festivals, andsadhanas. Instruments like small hand drums (damaru), hand bells, and trumpets are often used in certaintantric practices.[9] Musical instruments used in Tibetan Buddhist music include horns, cymbals, rgya-gling (oboe), gandi (wooden gong),dung dkar (conch trumpet), Mongolianyat-ga (Mongolian zither) anddra-nyen (lute).[9][101]
Individual schools, and even individual monasteries, maintain their own chant traditions. Tibetan Buddhism developed its own musical notation system and manuscripts depicting this system have survived in use until the present day.[102]
Tibetan monks are also noted for their skill atthroat-singing or overtone singing.[9] This is a specialized form of singing in which the singer can sound like he is producing separate notes simultaneously. TheCham dance is another Tibetan Buddhist performance art that includes music.[9]
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In theTheravada tradition, chanting is usually done inPali, sometimes withvernacular translations interspersed.[103] The intonation and style of the chant varies by tradition, with some preferring a more monotone chant and others a more melodic chanting. A common type of chanting in Theravada is pirit (paritta, "protection") chanting, which is one of the oldest forms of Buddhist chanting.[9][104] Among the most popular Theravada paritta chants are:Tisarana (The Three Refuges),Pancasila (The Five Precepts),Upajjhatthana (The Five Remembrances),Metta Sutta (Discourse on Loving Kindness), andMangala Sutta (Discourse on Blessings).[105][106][103]
Sinhalese Theravada Buddhism has various musical traditions. Some Theravada communities practice a type of religious service calledpoya hewisi which is accompanied by drumming.[9] TheTooth Relic Temple is the site of one popular tradition of devotional music which make extensive use of drumming.[107] This tradition can be traced back to the 18th century when several new musical forms arose, including prashasti ('praise songs').[107]
There are also modern traditions of lay Buddhist instrumental ensembles called hevisi which make musical offerings (shabda puja) at Buddhist temples.[107] Music (as well as dance and theater) is a central part of Sinhalese temple processions (perahera), such as the popularKandy Esala Perahera.[107]
Outside of Sri Lanka, one musical form of traditional Buddhist chanting found inCambodian Buddhism is calledSmot.
Myanmar is home to a broad genre of contemporary Buddhist music calleddhamma thachin (ဓမ္မသီချင်း) ordhamma tay (ဓမ္မတေး,lit. 'Dhamma songs'), composed in the twentieth to twenty-first centuries.[108] These songs draw on religious themes, and are commonly broadcast in Buddhist monasteries, and during religious festivals and donation feasts.[108]
Popular recording artists of this genre includeSoe Sandar Tun and Mandalay Thein Zaw.[108] From a lyrical perspective, this genre can be subdivided into songs that extol the Buddha and Buddhism, and songs that exhort listeners to follow Buddhist teachings.[108] Some compositions use traditional Burmese instruments and vocal stylings associated with theMahāgīta, a genre of Burmese classical music.[108]
Some contemporary Western Buddhists have adopted the various chanting and musical traditions from Asian Buddhism. Some Western Buddhists also sing about Buddhism in Western Buddhist genres, like punk, metal or folk.
Examples of Western Buddhist musicians who perform Buddhist music includeTina Turner, who has released music based on JapaneseNichiren Buddhist chanting,Lee Mirabai Harrington, who sings "Buddhist kirtan" influenced by Indian kirtan styles, the Buddhist monkHeng Sure, who has released several albums of "American Buddhist Folk Songs" and the punk band The Deathless.[109][110][111][112]
There are also several contemporary musicians which have been labeled "Buddhist music" and who make use of modern musical technology. They include popular singers like the Chinese-MalaysianImee Ooi, the Tibetan singerDechen Shak-Dagsay, the Japanese priestKanho Yakushiji, and the Nepalese singerAni Choying Drolma.[113]
Some contemporary Buddhists have adopted specific styles likeHip hop (MC Happiness), andMetal (The Firstborn).[114][115]
There are also a number ofNew Age and experimental musical forms which are related to or draw on Buddhism, some with understanding of the words, others merely based on repetition. A large number of these schools tend to besyncretic and incorporate Buddhist influences along with music of other traditions, likeHinduism. The first "New Age music" album,Music for Zen Meditation, draws on Buddhist themes.
While not strictly a variation of Buddhist chanting in itself, Japaneseshigin (詩吟) is a form of chanted poetry that reflects several principles ofZen Buddhism. It is sung in theseiza position, and participants are encouraged to sing from thegut - the Zen locus of power.Shigin and related practices are often sung at Buddhist ceremonies and quasi-religious gatherings inJapan.
In 2009, the Beyond Singing Project produced an album combining Buddhist chants and Christianchoral music.[116]Tina Turner andDechen Shak-Dagsay were involved.
Dutch gothic-symphonic metal bandEpica are also incorporating and combining Tibetan monk prayer chants as background openings in 2009'sDesign Your Universe, 2014'sThe Quantum Enigma, and 2021'sOmega.
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