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Buddhist liturgy is aformalized service of veneration and worship performed within aBuddhistSangha community in nearly every traditional denomination and tradition in the Buddhist world. It is often done one or more times a day and can vary amongst theTheravada,Mahayana, andVajrayana sects.
Liturgies typically consist ofchanting or recitation ofsūtra(s) or passages from a sūtra,mantras anddhāraṇīs (especially in Mahayana and Vajrayana),gāthās and verses of praises to Buddhist deities and figures as well as other types of rituals like dedications of offerings to the Buddhas, repentance rites as well as food bestowal rites. Depending on what practice the practitioner wishes to undertake, it can be done at a temple or at home. The liturgy is almost always performed in front of anobject or objects of veneration and accompanied by offerings of light, incense, water and/or food.
The traditional Chinese Buddhist liturgy that is performed during daily service is typically referred to as thechaomu kesong (朝幕課誦, lit: "Morning and Evening Chants")[1] and is usually ordered into the morning session, called thezaoke (早課), and the evening session, called thewanke (晚課).
Vocal performances of the liturgy can be classified into several different categories, namely:nian (念, lit: "recitation"),song (誦, 'it: "chanting") andchang (唱, lit: "singing").[1] During performances,sūtras are usually read on a single note with a regular beat that may progressively speed up,mantras anddhāraṇīs are chanted, andgāthās of praises are sung on a regular metric form with the use of melodies composed from precise pitches.[1] In particular, Chinese Buddhist ritual chanting in a performed in a distinctively clear, melodious, and resonate voice is specially termedfanbai (梵唄, lit: "the speech of Brahmā").[2][3][4] Traditional Chinese musical instruments are also frequently employed, such as thegong, themuyu (木魚, wooden fish), theqing (磬, sounding stones), thegu (鼓, drums),zhong (鐘, bells) andchazi (镲仔, cymbals).[5][1][4] In addition, different provinces inChina,overseas Chinese communities and even individual temples preserve multiple different regional traditions of musical performance.[1][4][6]
The liturgy typically combines practices and techniques from various traditions inChinese Buddhism, such as bowing and walking meditation fromChan,nianfo practices and devotion towardsAmituofo fromPure Land as well as mantra recitation fromEsoteric Buddhism.[7][8][9] Sitting meditation often occurs before or after the liturgy.
Various different compilations of texts for daily liturgical service and other rituals have been documented historically, such as theMing dynasty (1368-1644)Zhujing Risong Jiyao (諸經日誦集要, lit: "Compilation of Essentials for the Daily Chanting of Various Sūtras") which was critically revised and edited by the eminent monkYunqi Zhuhong (雲棲袾宏, 1535-1615) and later reprinted by the eminent monkOuyi Zhixu (蕅益智旭, 1599-1655), both of whom are traditionally regarded as the Eighth and Ninth Patriarchs of theChinese Pure Land tradition respectively.[10] In contemporary times, several different compilations have seen usage among different temples and lineages. One example is theChanmen Risong (禪門日誦; lit: "Daily Chants of theChan Gate"), a compilation whose earliest printed edition that is extant dates back to 1723 during the Qing dynasty and which was printed atHoi Tong Monastery. Various subsequent editions with minor changes were published during the rest of theQing dynasty period (1644-1912) through to theRepublican era (1912-1949) by various temples. In the21st century, one of the most popular editions has been the version that was originally published byTianning Temple inChangzhou, which has seen modern reprints by retailers and publishers.[10] Another example is theFomen Bibei (佛門必備課誦本, lit: "Book of Essential Chants of the Buddhist Gate") which was first published during the Republican era and has also seen modern reprints.[10] Both of these compilations show heavy influences from the earlierZhujing Risong Jiyao byYunqi Zhuhong.[10] Another liturgical compilation that has seen contemporary usage is theRisong Jingzhou Jianyao Keyi (日誦經咒簡要科儀, lit: "Concise Rituals for the Daily Chanting of Sūtras and Mantras") that was first published in 1937 during the Republican era by the Honghua Society (弘化社), an organization that was founded by the eminent monk and Thirteenth Patriarch of the Chinese Pure Land tradition,Yinguang (印光, 1962-1940).
Commentaries have also been written on the significance and structure of the rituals proceedings, such as an influential and comprehensive volume called theErke hejie (二課合解, lit: "Compiled Explanations on the Two sessions") by the Republican era monk Xingci (興慈, 1881-1950) and another extensive work called theChaomu kesong baihua jieshi (朝暮課誦白話解釋, lit: "Explanations on the Morning and Evening Services in the Common Vernacular") by Huang Zhihai[zh] (黄智海, 1875-1961), a Buddhist scholar who was a student ofYinguang.[11][12]
Some common ritual proceedings specified by many daily liturgies include:[13]
Typically, more specialized rituals and ceremonies that are regularly scheduled either weekly or monthly or annually, such as the various types of repentance rites (懺悔),gongfo zhaitian rites (供佛齋天) where offerings are made to the Buddhas and deities,Yujia Yankou rites or theShuilu Fahui ceremony have their own dedicated liturgical texts as well. In addition, manyBuddhas,Bodhisattvas anddharmapalas have their own dedicated annual days of remembrance where special liturgies are sung in praise of them.
Many contemporary liturgical texts follow a similar order of recitation for thezaoke service, with some variations between texts such as the addition or substitution of sections like eulogies and gāthās of praise. Some compilations also append a short commentary by the eminent Qing dynasty monk and National PreceptorYulin Tongxiu (玉林通琇, 1614-1675) on the structure of thezaoke service called theZaoke lunguan (早課綸貫). An example of an order of recitations is as follows:[9][14]
Some compilations also append another short commentaries by Yulin on the structure of thewanke service called theWanke lunguan (晚課綸貫). An example of an order of recitations is as follows:[14][9]
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In Japan, gongyō is also sometimes calledo-tsutome (お勤め) orshōjin (精進). All three terms are common Japanese words and none is specific to any particular sect or school.
The wordgongyō originated in ancient China; although nowadays it is more often used in Buddhism, it first appeared in theTaoism classicZhuang Zi.[17] Its original meaning is "assiduous or hard and frequent walking/practice".
Chinese philosopherZhuangzi abstracted and modified this word from an earlier classic of Taoism – Laozi'sTao Te Ching, in which it states:“上士闻道，勤而行之”, which means taking effort and practicing. During theSui andTang dynasties, the buddhist philosophy developed dramatically in central China, and was influenced by Taoism. Chinese Buddhist philosophers borrowed this word from Taoist classics, and it spread to Korea, Japan, Vietnam with Buddhism.
The concept ofgongyō is also common in Japanese Pure Land Buddhist schools such asJodo Shu[18] andJodo Shinshu. The central practice of these schools is the recitation of the name ofAmida, also called thenembutsu, but in daily practice a Pure Land practitioner will also chant excerpts of theLarger Sūtra of Immeasurable Life, particular the sections titled theSanbutsuge or theJuseige, and in some temples chanting the entireSmaller Sūtra of Immeasurable Life may occur once daily or alternatively only on more formal occasions.
In larger Pure Land temples, the daily service is performed by priests or ministers, and lay people can optionally attend and recite along if they wish. The times for these services will vary depending on the individual branch, and individual temple.
In traditionalJodo Shinshu Buddhism, lay practitioners may also chant a hymn written byShinran called theShoshinge, which is not a sutraper se, but expounds the lineage with whichJodo Shinshu owes its beliefs. A shorter hymn called theJunirai, the Twelve Praises ofAmida, can be used as well.
InJodo Shu, thenembutsu (Namu Amida Butsu) is often recited is specific format:
The gongyō ofShingon Buddhism differs amongst various sub-sects, but all of them mainly recite theHannya Shingyo, the mantras of theThirteen Buddhas and other mantras, theLight Mantra, and thegohogo; the saintly name ofKukai. In addition, recitation of other texts such as the Prajanaparamita-naya Sūtra (Rishukyo), the Samantamukha chapter of theLotus Sūtra, longer mantras, andpraises in mantra form are common in temples where priests reside.[19] gongyō is important for lay Shingon Buddhists to follow since the practice emphasizes meditation of the body, speech and mind of a buddha.
Nichiren Buddhists perform a form of gongyō that consists of reciting certain passages of theLotus Sūtra and chantingdaimoku. The format of gongyō varies bydenomination andsect. Some, likeNichiren Shoshu andNichiren Shu, have a prescribed formula which is longheld in their practice, while others such as theSoka Gakkai International variedly change their gongyō formats depending on modernity, the most recent being the 2015 edition of their liturgy format.
In theSoka Gakkai International (SGI), gongyō is performed to "return to the very foundation of our lives" and "draw wisdom" from inherent Buddha nature,[20] and achieves "the fusion or reality and wisdom"[21]
Nichiren established no formal procedure for gongyō other than the recitation of the 2nd and 16th chapters of the Lotus Sūtra, and at times even just the verse section of the 16th chapter. Hence the format had changed from time to time through the centuries. At the time the Soka Gakkai came into being, Nichiren Buddhist laity were not expected to do gongyō themselves; priests did it on their behalf. The first two presidents of the Soka Gakkai, Tsunesaburo Makiguchi and Josei Toda, taught members "not to hire priests to chant, as had long been customary, but to chant for themselves, a change they found both disarming and empowering"[22]
The current format has evolved over the years. Originally, it followed the format of Nichiren Shoshu. In the 1970s, silent prayers were added for the success of the Soka Gakkai itself, and in memory of its first two deceased presidents, in addition to prayers for Nichiren and his disciple Nikko. Currently, after the recitation of the 2nd chapter and the verse section of the 16th chapter, daimoku is chanted for as long as desired, after which all the silent prayers are recited to conclude gongyō. The SGI's version of sutra recitation takes approximately 5 minutes, leaving more time for the primary practice of chanting Nam-myoho-renge-kyo.[23] As of 2015, the silent prayers currently are: gratitude to the Gohonzon, to Nichiren, and to his immediate successor Nikko; appreciation for the three founding presidents of the organization; a prayer for the fulfillment of the great vow for worldwidekosen-rufu, for the human revolution and attainment of goals of the practitioner, and for the deceased; and finally for the happiness of all living beings. It is emphasized by the Soka Gakkai, however, that more important than the wording of the prayers is the practitioner's heartfelt intent in doing gongyō and expressing his or her appreciation and desires.[24]
Nichiren Shu has many types of gongyō a person can perform.[25][26] One example of family service procedure is as follows:
Recitation of the Lotus Sūtra can be performed in Shindoku or one's own preferred language.
There is additional form of gongyō performed by Nichiren Shu practitioners at homes and in temples in which the entire Lotus Sūtra is recited over the course of 32 days.
The Buddhist service of “Gon-Gyo” (勤行, Persevering Action) is the basic supplemental service ofHokkeko believers. In the Head Temple of the sect, it is conducted first as theUshitora gongyō at the Dai Kyakuden (Grand Reception Hall), among other places throughout the Head Temple. In the past centuries, the service was performed in five different locations:
The sect, along with the other Fuji sects in the area followed the custom of reciting the Sūtra chapters according to what Nichiren himself once did:
During the 1930s, the gongyō service was shortened to a single format, initiated by religious convertTsunesaburo Makiguchi and was approved by 57th High Priest Nissho Shonin. Today, some Nichiren Sects in the Mount Fuji area recite the full four versions of the 2nd and 16th Chapter of the Lotus Sūtra.
At present, gongyō is performed twice daily, upon rising and before retiring ("Often translated as morning and evening gongyō").[27]Its recitations of the Lotus Sūtra are composed of the following:
In total, the following format is observed:
These five morning and three “silent prayers” style (五座三座, Goza-Sanza) for the purpose of the following:
Members of the sect may only use Juzu prayer beads with pure white cords and white Pom-Pom ornaments, having been consecrated by a Nichiren Shoshu priest at a local temple, while Nichiren Shoshu priests use an additional set of Juzu prayer beads with white string tassels.
The brief rubbing of Juzu prayer beads is permitted in the beginning of ceremonies, but the habit of constant rubbing throughout ceremonies is deemed immodest and is prohibited during both gongyō andShodai (prolonged chanting).
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