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Buddhism includes a wide array ofdivine beings that are venerated in various ritual and popular contexts. Initially they included mainly Indian figures such asdevas,asuras andyakshas, but later came to include other Asian spirits and local gods (like the Burmesenats and the Japanesekami). They range from enlightenedBuddhas to regional spirits adopted by Buddhists or practiced on the margins of the religion.
Buddhists later also came to incorporate aspects from the countries to which it spread. As such, it includes many aspects taken from other mythologies of those cultures.
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ABuddha is a being who is fullyawakened and has fully comprehended theFour Noble Truths. In theTheravada tradition, while there is a list of acknowledged past Buddhas, the historical BuddhaSakyamuni is the only Buddha of our current era and is generally not seen as accessible or as existing in some higher plane of existence. ThePali literature of theTheravāda tradition includes tales oftwenty-nine Buddhas, which areSakyamuni and the twenty-eight Buddhas who preceded him.
Mahayana Buddhists venerate numerous Buddhas, more so than the Theravada tradition, includingMaitreya andAmitābha, who are seen as beings of great wisdom and power who preside overpure lands that one can travel to after death. Mahayana andVajrayana traditions also recognizefive primary Buddhas:
Each is associated with a different consort, direction, aggregate (or aspect of the personality), emotion, element, color, symbol, and mount.[1] In later, especially tantric sources, each male Buddha is associated with a specific female Buddha (though their names and attributes vary across the various Buddhist sources). Here is one common list of the five female Buddhas (also called prajñās, or vidyas):[2][3]
InTibetan Buddhism, several female Buddhas are also recognized, such asTara, the most popular female Buddha inTibetan Buddhism, who comes in many forms and colors. Other female Buddha figures includeVajrayogini,Nairatmya, andKurukullā.
Other Buddhas besides these five includeBhaisajyaguru (the Buddha of medicine) and Nageshvara Raja (the king of theNāgas).
There is also the idea of theAdi-Buddha, the "first Buddha" to attainBuddhahood. Variously named asVajradhara,Samantabhadra, Shiva, andMahavairocana, the first Buddha is also associated with the concept ofDharmakaya and theGround of all phenomena.
Some historical figures are also seen as Buddhas, such as the Buddhist philosopherNagarjuna (sometimes called the second Buddha) and the figure ofPadmasambhava.
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InTheravada Buddhism,bodhisatta is a term used mainly for Sakyamuni Buddha before his awakening. It is also commonly believed that the future Buddha,Maitreya (Pali: Metteya) currently resides inTushita Heaven, and this figure is one of the few bodhisattvas who have a prominent place in Theravada.[4][5]
In Mahayana Buddhism, abodhisattva is any being that has arousedbodhicitta (mind of awakening) and is thus working towards fullBuddhahood. Bodhisattvas who are seen as powerful and highly advanced are highly venerated in this tradition.
In India, a list known as the "Eight Close Sons" (Skt.aṣṭa utaputra) became the main set of bodhisattvas of Shakyamuni Buddha's entourage, they are:[6][7]
In Tibetan Buddhism, aVajrayana Buddhist tradition, the major bodhisattvas are these "eight great bodhisattvas".[8]
The bodhisattvaPrajñāpāramitā-devi is a female personification of the perfection of wisdom and thePrajñāpāramitā sutras. She became an important figure, widely depicted in IndianBuddhist art. She is the main female bodhisattva in Indian sources. Other Mahayana sutras also depict female bodhisattvas, such asThe Lion's Roar of Śrīmālādevī.[9]
Other male bodhisattvas appearing in Indian sources includeCandraprabha,Suryaprabha,Bhaiṣajyasamudgata,Bhaiṣajyarāja,Akṣayamati, andVajrasattva. There are also other female bodhisattvas likeTara,Ushnishavijaya,Vasudhara andCundi.
In theEast Asian Buddhist traditions, which are mainly Mahayana, major bodhisattvas include many of the above:Guānyīn (Japanese: Kannon),Maitreya (Chinese:Mílè, Jp:Miroku),Samantabhadra (Ch:Pǔxián, Jp:Fugen),Manjushri (Wénshū),Ksitigarbha (Ch: Jìzàng Jp: Jizō), andAkasagarbha. The most popular bodhisattva in the East Asian pantheon is surelyGuānyīn (the East Asian form of the IndianAvalokitesvara) who is depicted as female in East Asia, rather than as the Indian male Avalokitesvara. Guanyin is also believed by Buddhists to take on numerous manifestations, among which are several other bodhisattvas such asCundi andCintamanicakra.
In addition, Buddhist traditions in different countries have also absorbed native deities into their localized Buddhist pantheon, sometimes as Bodhisattvas. Some examples areGuan Yu inChinese Buddhism, who is venerated as Sangharama Bodhisattva (Chinese: 伽藍菩薩;Pinyin:Qiélán Púsà) as well as a deity, andHachiman inJapanese Buddhism, who is venerated as the Bodhisattva Hachiman (Japanese: 八幡大菩薩;Rōmaji:Hachiman Daibosatsu).
Certain historical figures have been considered to be bodhisattvas, likeNagarjuna. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism consider reborntulkus such as theDalai Lamas and theKarmapas to be emanations of bodhisattvas. East Asian Buddhist traditions may venerate certain historical figures as bodhisattvas, such asKukai in theShingon school.
In Buddhism, there is a class of deities whose main role is to act as guardians, protectors or general removers of evil. Some of these are unique to Buddhism and others are Indian deities that Buddhism shares withHinduism.
InMahayana Buddhism there are numerous "dharma protectors" (S.dharmapāla, T. chos skyong; C. fahu 法護), powerful beings who are defenders of Buddhism and protectors of Buddhists against evil or harm.[10] There are two main types of protectors, mundane worldly protectors (who may be devas or spirits) and supramundane awakened protectors, bodhisattvas or buddhas who appear in a specific form to defend the Dharma.[10] The former includes numerousdevas suchBrahmā andIndra, as well as local spirits and gods that have been adopted by Buddhism. The latter type include popularwrathful deities like:Yamantaka,Ekajaṭī,Mahākāla,Palden Lhamo, andHayagrīva.
The four "guardians of the world" (lokapāla), also known as theFour Heavenly Kings (Cāturmahārāja), are four deities (devas) who protect the four directions of theSahā world (our world). Each guardian rules over a specific direction and also a class of non-human beings. These guardian deities are found in the earliest Buddhist sources and are shared by Mahayana andTheravada. The four guardians are:[11]
The Wisdom Kings (Sanskrit: Vidyārāja) are beings that are venerated inEast Asian Buddhism and inVajrayana Buddhism. They are often depicted with an aggressive or fierce appearance which symbolizes their power to get rid of negative forces. They are thus often seen as an expression of the Buddha's compassion.
InEast Asian Buddhism, TheFive Wisdom Kings are often seen as emanations of the Buddhas. These five are:
Other important Wisdom Kings include
ThePañcarakṣā ("Five Protectors") are five protector goddesses which are important in Mahayana Buddhism, the term also refers to theirdhāraṇīs.[12][13][14][15]
These five protectivedhāraṇī-goddesses are:[12]
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InChinese Buddhism, there is a list ofTwenty-Four Protective Deities (Chinese: 二十四諸天;pinyin:Èrshísì Zhūtiān). These are mostly mundane dharmapalas:[16]
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The termdeva (Sanskrit; Pāli: deva; Tibetan:lha; Chinese:tian 天; Japanese:ten; Korean:cheon) literally means "radiant one" or "shining one" and is commonly translated as "divinity," "heavenly being," or "god." Devas are one of the five (or six, in some traditions) realms of rebirth (gati) within the cycle of existence (saṃsāra).[17] The worddeva originates from the Sanskrit root √div, meaning "to shine," and shares an etymological connection with the English word "divinity." Rebirth as a deva is considered a favorable outcome resulting from virtuous deeds (karman) performed in previous lifetimes. While the heavenly realms of devas are regarded as auspicious, they are impermanent and remain part of the cyclic existence ofsaṃsāra, rather than being eternal heavens.[17] Devas are not all necessarily wise or on the Buddhist path and hence not objects ofrefuge. They have very long lives which have much less suffering than humans, but are not immortal or immune from suffering. Some devas have no physical form and exist in the formless realms. None of them arecreator gods, and they are neitheromniscient noromnipotent.[17]
Buddhist cosmology identifies 27 (alternatively 26 or 28) categories of devas, classified based on their dwelling places (devaloka) within the three realms of existence (trailokya): the sensuous realm (kāmadhātu), the material or form realm (rūpadhātu), and the formless or immaterial realm (ārūpyadhātu).[17] Devas are apparitional beings, appearing fully developed at birth. In the sensuous realm, they retain physical bodies and consume food, while those in higher realms subsist on subtler forms of nourishment, such as sensory contact or mental contemplation.[17] Their existence, while pleasurable, remains impermanent, as they are bound bysaṃsāra. Upon rebirth, devas are often aware of their past lives and the virtuous deeds that led to their celestial existence.[17]
Some of the most commonly discussed types of devas in Buddhist scriptures include: the Brahma devas,Trāyastriṃśa devas,gandharvas (celestial musicians), and theTuṣita devas.[17]
Various Indian devas were part ofIndian Buddhism from an early period. Examples includeŚakra (known as "lord of the devas", the BuddhistIndra) who rules over the devas of the "Heaven of the Thirty Three" (Trayatrimsa), the fourLokapalas ("guardians of the world"), and goddesses likeLakshmi andHariti.
With thespread of Buddhism out of India, different cultures also integrated or syncretized local deities into their pantheon of devas. For example,Chinese Buddhism venerates theTwenty-Four Protective Devas, which include both originally Indian deities, such asMahesvara (Shiva),Sakra (Indra),Brahma,Sarasvati,Laksmi,Marici andHariti, as well as a few deities integrated fromTaoism, such as theEmperor Zi Wei andLeigong.Guan Yu, who is regarded as a god of war inTaoism, is also regarded as both a bodhisattva and a deva.
InJapanese Buddhism,Shinto gods were also syncretized into the pantheon under thehonji suijaku theory by being conflated with the Indian deities imported from Buddhism, such asUgajin andŌkuninushi.
The yidam, or ishta-devata, is a personal meditation deity. TheSanskrit wordiṣṭadevatā oriṣṭadevaḥ is defined by V. S. Apte as "a favorite god, one'stutelary deity."[18] Though this term is used in many popular books on Buddhist Tantra, the termişţadevatā has not been attested in any Buddhist tantric text in Sanskrit. The unrelated Tibetan version of the term, possibly of entirely native origin, isyi-dam[19] is said to be a contraction of Tib.yid-kyi-dam-tshig,[20] meaning "samaya of mind"- in other words, the state of being indestructibly bonded with the inherently pure and liberated nature of mind.
The ishta-devata of Hinduism is an aspect of God for personal worship.[21] In Buddhism, a yidam is a manifestation ofenlightenment and may take the form ofSambhogakāya Buddhas, tantric deities such asDakinis, bodhisattvas, Dharma protectors (Dharmapalas) or other historical figures such as past gurus or religious leaders.[20]
In theBuddhist Tantras, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas often manifest in unusual and fierce forms, which are used in tantra asyidams or meditation deities.[22] While some of these deities have a hideous and fierce appearance, they are not personifications of evil or demonic forces. The ferocious appearance of these deities is used to instill fear in evil spirits which threaten the Dharma.[23]
Throughout the history of Buddhism, Buddhists have also venerated and relied on numerous other supranormal beings or spirits.
One important class of beings are theyakṣas, nature-spirits, usually benevolent, who are caretakers of the natural treasures hidden in the earth and tree roots.[24] Having been worshiped in India since before theVedic period, Buddhists in India venerated these deities as local protector spirits. One important Indian yakṣa wasKubera, the spirit of wealth.[25]
Another important class of beings are thenāgas, a serpentine race of beings, often associated with protecting bodies of water. These beings are also associated with theMahayana sutras and their protection.
InBurma there exists the popular worship of nature spirits callednats which are worshiped alongside of Buddhism.[26]
In Japan, Buddhists have traditionally venerated the localkami deities.
The function of the Yidam is one of the profound mysteries of the Vajrayana... Especially during the first years of practice the Yidam is of immense importance. Yidam is the Tibetan rendering of the Sanskrit word Istadeva-the indwelling deity; but, where the Hindus take the Istadeva for an actual deity who has been invited to dwell in the devotee's heart, the Yidams of Tantric Buddhism are in fact the emanations of the adepts own mind.
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