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| Total population | |
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 2 million (2023)[1][2]0.71% of population | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
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Buddhism has a longhistory in Indonesia, and it is one of the six recognized religions in the country, along withIslam,Christianity (Protestantism andCatholicism),Hinduism andConfucianism. According to 2023 estimates roughly 0.71% of the total citizens ofIndonesia were Buddhists, numbering around 2 million. MostBuddhists are concentrated inJakarta,Riau,Riau Islands,Bangka Belitung,North Sumatra, andWest Kalimantan. These totals, however, are probably inflated, as practitioners ofTaoism,Tridharma,Yiguandao, and otherChinese folk religions, which are not considered official religions of Indonesia, likely declared themselves as Buddhists on the most recent census.[4] Today, the majority of Buddhists in Indonesia areChinese Indonesians, but communities ofnative Buddhists (such asJavanese,Tenggerese,Sasak,Balinese,Dayak,Alifuru,Batak, andKaro) also exist.
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Buddhism, especiallyIndonesian Esoteric Buddhism, is the second oldest outside religion inIndonesia afterHinduism, which arrived fromIndia around the second century.[4] The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history ofHinduism, as a number of empires influenced byIndian culture were established around the same period. The arrival of Buddhism in theIndonesian archipelago began with trading activity, from the early 1st century, by way of themaritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India.[7] The oldest Buddhist archaeological site in Indonesia is arguably theBatujaya stupas complex inKarawang, West Java. The oldest relic in Batujaya was estimated to originate from the 2nd century, while the latest dated from the 12th century. Subsequently, significant numbers of Buddhist sites were found inJambi,Palembang, andRiau provinces in Sumatra, as well as inCentral andEast Java. The Indonesian archipelago has, over the centuries, witnessed the rise and fall of powerful Buddhist empires, such as theSailendra dynasty and theMataram andSrivijaya empires.
According to some Chinese sources, the Chinese Buddhist monkI-tsing, while on his pilgrim journey to India, witnessed the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya based onSumatra in the 7th century. The empire served as a Buddhist learning center in the region. A notable Srivijayan revered Buddhist scholar isDharmakīrtiśrī, a Srivijayan prince of the Sailendra dynasty, born around the turn of the 7th century in Sumatra.[8] He became a revered scholar-monk in Srivijaya and moved toIndia to become a teacher at the famedNalanda University, as well as a poet. He built on and reinterpreted the work ofDignaga, the pioneer ofBuddhist logic, and was very influential amongBrahman logicians as well as Buddhists. His theories became normative inTibet and are studied to this day as a part of the basic monastic curriculum. Other Buddhist monks who visited Indonesia wereAtisha,Dharmapala, a professor ofNalanda, and the South Indian BuddhistVajrabodhi. Srivijaya was the largest Buddhist empire ever formed in Indonesian history. Indian empires such as thePala Empire helped fund Buddhism in Indonesia; specifically funding a monastery for Sumatran monks.[9]
A number of Buddhist sites and artifacts related to Indonesia'shistorical heritage can be found in Indonesia, including the 8th centuryBorobudurmandala cmonument andSewu temple inCentral Java,Batujaya in West Java,Muaro Jambi,Muara Takus andBahal temple in Sumatra, and numerous statues or inscriptions from the earlier history of Indonesian Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms. During the eras of theKediri,Singhasari andMajapahit empires, Buddhism — identified asDharma ri Kasogatan — was acknowledged as one of the kingdom's official religions along with Hinduism. Although some of the kings may have favored Hinduism, harmony,religious tolerance, and evensyncretism were promoted as a manifestation of the national motto,Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, which was coined from theKakawin Sutasoma, written byMpu Tantular to promote tolerance and coexistence betweenHindus (Shivaites) andBuddhists.[10] The classical era of ancient Java has also produced some of the most exquisite examples ofBuddhist art; such as the statue ofPrajnaparamita and the statue of Buddha Vairochana and Boddhisttva Padmapani and Vajrapani located in theMendut temple.
In the 13th century,Islam entered the archipelago, and began gaining a foothold in coastal port towns. The fall of the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit empire in the late 15th or early 16th century marked the end ofDharmic civilization in Indonesia. By the end of the 16th century,Islam had supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religion ofJava andSumatra. For 450 years after that, there was no significant Buddhist practice in Indonesia. Many Buddhist sites,stupas,temples, and manuscripts were lost or forgottenas the region became predominantly Muslim. During this era of decline, few people practiced Buddhism; most of them wereChinese immigrants who settled in Indonesia when migration accelerated in the 17th century. Manykelenteng (Chinese temples) in Indonesia are in fact atridharma temple that houses three faiths, namely Buddhism,Confucianism andTaoism.
During the 1920s,Kwee Tek Hoay became actively engaged in theTridharma. He ensured that the Buddhist temple in Jakarta also served as an institution for lessons onBuddhism. He is credited with the publication of the first Indonesian-language magazine on the teachings of Buddhism,Dharma Moestika (1932–1934).[11]
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In 1934,Narada Thera, aTheravada Buddhist missionary monk fromSri Lanka, visited theDutch East Indies for the first time as part of his journey to spread theDhamma inSoutheast Asia.[12] This opportunity was seized by local Buddhists to revive Buddhism in Indonesia. ABodhi tree planting ceremony was held on the southeastern side ofBorobudur on March 10, 1934, under the blessing of Narada Thera, and somelay followers were ordained asmonks.[4]
On January 27, 1965, under the Soekarno administration through Presidential Decree No. 1/PNPS/1965, the legal foundation for the "five religions embraced by the population of Indonesia" concept was established. This document was the first to list the religions within its official elucidation, namelyIslam,Protestantism,Catholicism,Hinduism and Buddhism.
Although the belief system is called "Buddhism" and the followers identify themselves as "Buddhists," many of them were actually practicingTridharma ("the three teachings"), a Chinese syncretised form of Buddhism,Confucianism, andTaoism.[12]
Later, it was the figures from Tridharma who then separated themselves and formed various modern Buddhist organizations that still survive, such as the Indonesian Buddhayana Council (along with Sangha Agung Indonesia) and the Sangha Theravada Indonesia.
The first modernVesak (Waisak) celebration after Indonesia's independence was held in 1953 at Borobudur Temple, marking a pivotal moment in the national revival of this tradition. Looking back, however, the celebration of Vesak at Borobudur and Mendut temples had actually begun as early as 1929, initiated by theTheosophical Society of theDutch East Indies. This nascent tradition then came to a complete halt during theIndonesian National Revolution from 1945 to 1949, before finally being revived in 1953 and later officially established as a national holiday in 1983.[13]
In 1955,Ashin Jinarakkhita formed the first Indonesian Buddhist lay organisation, PersaudaraanUpasaka Upasika Indonesia (PUUI). In 1957, the PUUI was integrated into the Indonesian Buddhist Association (Perhimpunan Buddhis Indonesia, Perbudhi), in which bothTheravada andMahayana priesthood were united.[14][15] Nowadays, the PUUI is called Majelis Buddhayana Indonesia (MBI).[16]
In 1960, Jinarakkhita established the Sangha Suci Indonesia, as a monastic organisation. In 1963, the name was changed to Maha Sangha of Indonesia, and in 1974 until the present day, the name was changed into Sangha Agung Indonesia. It is a community of inter-school monastics from the Theravada, Mahayana andTantrayana schools.[17][18]
Following thedownfall of President Sukarno in the mid-1960s,Pancasila was reasserted as the official Indonesian policy on religion to only recognisemonotheism.[19] In 1965, after acoup-attempt, Buddhist organisations had to comply with the first principle of the Indonesian state ideology,Pancasila, the belief in one supreme God.[18] All organisations that doubted or denied the existence of God were outlawed.[20] This posed a problem for Indonesian Buddhism, which was solved by Jinarakkhita by presentingNibbāna (Nirvana) as the Theravada "God", andAdi-Buddha, the primaeval Buddha of the region's previousIndonesian Esoteric Buddhism, as the Mahayana "God",[20] although this interpretation of the Buddha is controversial and not widely accepted by theTheravada school of Buddhism.[21] According to Jinarakkhita, the concept ofAdi Buddha was found in the tenth-century Javanese Buddhist textSang Hyang Kamahayanikan.[18]
During theNew Order era (1966–1998) under PresidentSuharto, the "state-recognized religions" policy was implemented with great rigidity. Through Presidential Instruction No. 14 of 1967, the public practice ofChinese folk religions, beliefs, and customs, includingConfucianism, andIndonesian folk religions were severely restricted and suppressed. As a consequence, only five religions werede facto recognized and facilitated by the state, which strongly reinforced the public understanding of there being "five official religions." Many formal Chinese traditional beliefs such as Confucianism and Taoism were also incorporated into the Buddhist practices ofChinese Indonesian Buddhists who were mostly of theMahayana school, labelling the folk religions as a part of "Buddhism".[22][23] During this time, manyChinese temples changed their names from Chinese names toPali orSanskrit.[12]
Chinese Indonesians, in particular, had increasingly embraced Christianity (Catholicism andProtestantism). Catholic growth prior toWorld War II was slow, but subsequently saw some success, most notably after 1965 and the New Order, where all Indonesians were required to proclaim an approved religion. For example, between 1950 and 2000, the Catholic population grew from 1.1% to 8.7% in theArchdiocese of Pontianak, while in theDiocese of Sintang, it grew from 1.7% to 20.1%.[citation needed] Catholicism and other minority religions have experienced enormous growth especially in areas inhabited by large numbers of Chinese Indonesians (who were practicingChinese folk religions) and ethnic Javanese (who were practicingIndonesian folk religions oraliran kepercayaan). In 2000, there were 301,084 Catholics in Jakarta, compared to only 26,955 in 1960. This means the Catholic population increased elevenfold while in the same period the population of Jakarta merely tripled, from 2,800,000 to 8,347,000.[24] In the early 2000s, some reports also show that many Chinese Indonesians converted to Christianity.[25][26] Demographer Aris Ananta reported in 2008 that "anecdotal evidence suggests that more Buddhist Chinese have become Christians as they increased their standards of education".[25]
Berchert (1981) argues that the introduction ofTheravada Buddhism in Indonesia was largely the result of efforts byAshin Jinarakkhita, who had been ordained as a monk in Burma. Bechert identifies several important developments during the 1950s that facilitated this revival. These include the establishment of various Buddhist organizations beginning in 1952 and, most significantly, the 1958 visit ofBhikkhu Narada to Java, which laid the foundation for a Buddhist center in Semarang. Bechert's analysis also notes a subsequent trend in the 1970s, where someChinese temples were gradually converted into Theravada temples.[27][12]
Eventually, the Theravada school of Buddhism further strengthened its foundation in Indonesia. With the help of monks from the ThaiDhammayuttika Nikāya order,Saṅgha Theravāda Indonesia (Indonesian Theravāda Saṅgha), the first monastic organization of Theravada Buddhism in Indonesia, was formed on October 23, 1976, at the Mahā Dhammaloka Vihāra (now Tanah Putih Vihāra),Semarang, Central Java.[28][29] This organization was initiated by monks who did not agree with the inter-sectarian views of the Indonesian Buddhayana Council. In 1979, the first Buddhist college in Indonesia, Nalanda Institute, was established with the ideal of fulfilling the need for Buddhist teachers to educate Buddhist students.[30][31][32]
In 1976, the revival ofVajrayana (also known as Tantrayana) in Indonesia was spearheaded byGiriputre Soemarsono andDharmesvara Oke Diputhera through the establishment of a Tantrayāna group calledMajelis Dharma Duta Kasogatan. The group's name was based on an effort to revive the ancient term 'Kasogatan,' which was used to refer to Buddhism in the past. This new Kasogatan group was formed with the hope of restoring Vajrayāna Buddhism so that it could flourish once more, as it did during the era of theMajapahit kingdom.[33]
In 1978, monks from theMahayana school also participated in forming a sangha organization, namely theSangha Mahayana Indonesia. This organization was founded by Bhiksu Dharmasagaro. It was the Sangha Mahayana Indonesia that initiated the idea of building the Pusdiklat Buddha Mahayana Indonesia (Indonesian Mahayana Buddhist Training Center), with the aim of disseminating Mahāyāna Buddhist teachings in Indonesia through the translation ofMahāyāna sutras into theIndonesian language.[34]
The second Tantrayana group was theYayasan Satya Dharma Surya Indonesia, which was established in 1987. This group consisted of Tantrayāna followers from the Zhenfo Zong school, initially led by a Buddhist devotee named Harsono (now known as Vajracarya Harsono). At that time, the Zhenfo Zong Tantrayāna community numbered approximately 200 followers, and they conducted theirpuja by practicing at otherviharas due to the lack of permanent facilities. Therefore, the Yayasan Satya Dharma Surya Indonesia was established, along with the construction of a vihara in theMuara Karang area named Vihara Vajra Bumi Jayakarta, as the first Zhenfo Zong place of worship in Indonesia.[35]
In October 1988, the leaders of Yayasan Satya Dharma Surya Indonesia and the Majelis Dharma Duta Kasogatan Indonesia met and merged these two foundations. This merger was intended to unify the followers. With various Buddhist schools joining as members of thePerwakilan Umat Buddha Indonesia (Representatives of Indonesian Buddhists; abbreviated as Walubi), the Majelis Dharma Duta Kasogatan Indonesia changed its name to Majelis Agama Buddha Tantrayana Kasogatan Indonesia, which was formalized in October 1994. In 2001, the organization changed its name again toMajelis Agama Buddha Tantrayana Zhenfo Zong Kasogatan Indonesia.[36]
Following the fall of Suharto in 1998,Abdurrahman Wahid was elected as the country's fourth president. He rescinded the 1967 Presidential Instruction and the 1978 Home Affairs Ministry directive, and Confucianism once again became officially recognised as a religion in Indonesia. Chinese culture and activities were again permitted.[37] This impacted the Buddhist population numbers because Confucianists began to update theirnational identity cards (KTP), although many Chinese Indonesians still have not updated it because they could not find a clear dividing line betweenTaoism,Confucianism,Chinese folk religion, and formal Buddhism.
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In 2002,Kertarajasa Buddhist College (STAB Kertarajasa), aTheravada Buddhist private university, was established to accommodate the need for Buddhist religious teachers and preachers.[38][39][32] Later, thePa-Auk Forest Monastery tradition, along with other Burmese traditions, also planted their Theravadin roots in Indonesia by establishing various branches throughout the country.[40][41] In 2015, another separate Theravadin organization, Saṅgha Bhikkhuṇī Theravāda Indonesia, held the first Theravada ordination ofbhikkhunis in Indonesia at Wisma Kusalayani inLembang, Bandung, West Java,[42] although the validity of this ordination remains controversial among the conservatives (seeBhikkhunī#Re-establishing bhikkhunī ordination),[43] and is not officially recognized by the Saṅgha Theravāda Indonesia.[44]
A 2024 study by Buaban, Makin, and Sutrisno analyzes the "Theravadization" of the Buddhayana movement in Indonesia, arguing that while the movement claims to be non-sectarian, its public doctrines and rituals became predominantly Theravada in character. This shift was attributed to two main factors: the transnational discourse of "modern Buddhism," which emphasized Theravada's "rational" teachings andVipassana meditation as scientific, and Indonesian political pressures, specifically theNew Order's assimilation policy that marginalizedMahayana Buddhism due to its strong association with Chinese culture (seeHan Buddhism). As a result, Mahayana practices were largely confined to private spaces like homes andkelenteng (Chinese temples), while Theravada was presented in the public sphere to align with the state's needs, a phenomenon visibly demonstrated in the Theravada-dominated nationalVesak celebrations.[45]
Over time, as the discrimination of theNew Order subsided, other Buddhist schools also began to build their organizations in Indonesia. A 2022 study by Abdul Syukur analyzes the theological debates amongBuddhist schools in Indonesia, which arose from the constitutional requirement for each recognized religion to have a concept of one God. The Buddhayana movement successfully addressed this by formulating "Sang Hyang Adi Buddha" as the name of God, based on the Javanese textSang Hyang Kamahayanikan, a pragmatic move that secured official state recognition for Buddhism. However, this concept was rejected by theTheravada school, which argued that the source text was not from thePali Canon and instead proposed its own concept of an unnamed, impersonal absolute found in theUdāna scripture (Tatiyanibbānapaṭisaṁyutta Sutta, Ud 8.3), that is a reference toNibbāna (Nirvana). The Mahayana scool bases its concept of the Godhead on the philosophical principle of thedharmakaya (the eternal, absolute body of the Buddha), while theNichiren Shoshu Indonesia (NSI) sect identifies God with the Natural Law, embodied in the mantraNammyohorengekyo, and considers its founder,Nichiren, to be a Buddha. These conflicting doctrines, stemming from each sect's reliance on differentBuddhist canons, have resulted in significant disunity and potential for conflict within the Indonesian Buddhist community (see#Inter-school blasphemy).[21]
Today, in reference to the principle ofPancasila, aBuddhist monk orpandita representing the Buddhistsangha orparisā (assembly), along with a priest,Brahmin, clergy or representative of other recognized religions, participate in nearly all state-sponsored ceremonies to lead prayers according to their respective faiths.[46]
Once a year, thousands of Buddhists from Indonesia and neighboring countries flock to Borobudur to commemorate the nationalWaisak Day.[47]
Pockets ofJavanese Buddhists exist mainly in villages and cities inCentral andEast Java. The regencies ofTemanggung,Blitar andJepara count about 30,000 Buddhists, mostly of Javanese ethnicity. For example, native Javanese Buddhists population formed as the majority in mountainous villages of Kaloran subdistrict in Temanggung, Central Java.[48] TheTenggerese people, a Javanese sub-ethnic group, maintain that they practice their faith in Buddhism specifically to uphold the legacy of their ancestors,[49] although they mainly practiceTheravada Buddhism in the present day,[50] rather than the historicalIndonesian Esoteric Buddhism.
A small minority ofSasaks called the "Bodha" are mainly found in the village of Bentek and on the slopes ofGunung Rinjani,Lombok. They had managed to avoid anyIslamic influence and worship deities likeDewi Sri with Esoteric Buddhist andHindu influences in their rituals due to their secluded geographical location. This group of Sasak, due in part to the name of their tribe, are recognized as Buddhists by the Indonesian government. At present, there are more than 10,000 Buddhists in their community and belonging to the Theravada school.[51]
In the remote interior ofSeram Island inMaluku, the Yamatitam people, a subgroup of the indigenousAlifuru tribe, represent another unique Buddhist community. Traditionally living a simple and nomadic life in the mountains, their community had limited contact with the outside world and did not speak the national language. Their journey into Theravada Buddhism began after making contact with alay follower, who had previously employed them and served as a trade associate, and eventually monks of the Sangha Theravada Indonesia, who started providing them with spiritual guidance and support from 2014. This relationship has not only introduced them to Buddhist teachings but also assisted in their social and educational development, helping to connect their secluded community with the wider Indonesian society, notably through events like joint Vesak celebration and mass wedding ceremonies.[52]
Other missionary efforts were also initiated among theBalinese,[53][54]Dayak,[55][56]Batak,Karo[57][58] and various other ethnic groups.[59] As a result, the Buddhist distribution in Indonesia consists of various ethnicities, not limited toChinese Indonesians. There are also someTamil[60][61] andThai[62][63] Theravada Buddhists who reside in Indonesia.
According to the 2018 civil registration, there were 2,062,150 Buddhists in Indonesia.[64] The percentage of Buddhists in Indonesia increased from 0.7% in 2010 to 0.77% in 2018.
Buddhism, whether the three main traditional schools (Theravada,Mahayana, andVajrayana) or the syncretised versions, is mainly practiced by theChinese Indonesian community, followed by some indigenous groups of Indonesia, such as theJavanese,Tenggerese,Sasak,Balinese,Dayak,Alifuru,Batak, andKaro.
The organizational structure of Buddhism in modern Indonesia is largely characterized by temple affiliations, which can be broadly categorized under some religious councils:
Indonesia's most notable Buddhist organization is Perwakilan Umat Buddha Indonesia (Walubi) and Persatuan Umat Buddha Indonesia (Permabudhi) which serve as the vehicle of all Buddhist schools in Indonesia.
Top ten Indonesian provinces with significant Buddhist populations areJakarta,North Sumatra,West Kalimantan,Banten,Riau,Riau Islands,West Java,East Java,South Sumatra, andCentral Java.[3]
| Province (2018 Census.) | Total population | Buddhist population | Percentage |
|---|---|---|---|
| Indonesia | 266,534,836 | 2,062,150 | 0.77% |
| Jakarta | 11,011,862 | 399,005 | 3.62% |
| North Sumatra | 14,908,036 | 361,402 | 2.42% |
| West Kalimantan | 5,427,418 | 330,638 | 6.09% |
| Riau Islands | 1,961,388 | 143,755 | 7.33% |
| Banten | 10,868,810 | 136,183 | 1.25% |
| Riau | 6,149,692 | 133,744 | 2.17% |
| West Java | 45,632,714 | 98,780 | 0.22% |
| East Java | 40,706,075 | 74,186 | 0.18% |
| South Sumatra | 8,267,779 | 67,504 | 0.82% |
| Bangka Belitung Islands | 1,394,483 | 66,705 | 4.78% |
| Central Java | 36,614,603 | 53,578 | 0.15% |
| Jambi | 3,491,764 | 34,376 | 0.98% |
| Bali | 4,236,983 | 28,635 | 0.68% |
| Lampung | 9,044,962 | 27,397 | 0.30% |
| South Sulawesi | 9,117,380 | 21,661 | 0.24% |
| West Nusa Tenggara | 3,805,537 | 16,654 | 0.44% |
| East Kalimantan | 3,155,252 | 15,535 | 0.49% |
| South Kalimantan | 2,956,784 | 12,412 | 0.42% |
| Aceh | 5,253,512 | 7,444 | 0.14% |
| Central Sulawesi | 2,969,475 | 4,339 | 0.15% |
| North Kalimantan | 654,994 | 4,216 | 0.64% |
| North Sulawesi | 2,645,118 | 3,957 | 0.15% |
| West Sumatra | 5,542,994 | 3,638 | 0.07% |
| Special Region of Yogyakarta | 3,645,487 | 3,155 | 0.09% |
| Central Kalimantan | 2,577,215 | 2,763 | 0.11% |
| Papua | 4,346,593 | 2,355 | 0.05% |
| Bengkulu | 2,001,578 | 2,180 | 0.11% |
| Southeast Sulawesi | 1,755,193 | 2,118 | 0.12% |
| Gorontalo | 1,181,531 | 977 | 0.08% |
| West Papua | 1,148,154 | 957 | 0.08% |
| West Sulawesi | 1,563,896 | 478 | 0.03% |
| East Nusa Tenggara | 5,426,418 | 448 | 0.01% |
| Maluku | 1,864,229 | 395 | 0.02% |
| North Maluku | 1,314,849 | 150 | 0.01% |
TheLalitavistara Sutra was known to theMantranaya stonemasons ofBorobudur (seeLalitavistara Sūtra). 'Mantranaya' is not a corruption or misspelling of 'mantrayana' even though it is largely synonymous. Mantranaya is the term for the esoteric tradition onmantra, a particular lineage ofVajrayana andTantra, inIndonesia. The clearly Sanskrit sounding 'Mantranaya' is evident inOld Javanese tantric literature, particularly as documented in the oldest esoteric Buddhist tantric text in Old Javanese, theSang Kyang Kamahayanan Mantranaya.[65][66]
In modern Indonesia, the Buddhist literature in use is derived from ancientBuddhist canons translated into theIndonesian language. The Theravada school emphasizes the utilization of thePāli Canon (Tipiṭaka) in thePali language along with itscommentaries and translations; the Mahayana school mostly draws from theChinese Buddhist canon inClassical Chinese and its translations; and the Vajrayana school relies on theTibetan Buddhist canon (Kangyur andTengyur), depending on the lineage.
However, due to the large volume of the canons, each school more frequently uses theparitta ordharani books for daily to weekly chanting,[67] although the canons remain the primary basis for sermons and in-depth study (pariyatti).[68]
Like the rest of Southeast Asia,Indonesia seems to have been most strongly influenced by India from the 1st century CE. The islands ofSumatra andJava in western Indonesia were the seat of the empire ofSri Vijaya (8th–13th century), which came to dominate most of the area around the Southeast Asian peninsula through maritime power. The Sri Vijayan Empire had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, under a line of rulers named theShailendra. The Shailendras was the ardent temple builder and the devoted patron of Buddhism in Java.[69] Sri Vijaya spread Mahayana Buddhist art during its expansion into the Southeast Asian peninsula. Numerous statues of MahayanaBodhisattvas from this period are characterized by a very strong refinement and technical sophistication, and are found throughout the region. One of the earliest Buddhist inscription in Java, theKalasan inscription dated 778, mentioned about the construction of atemple for the goddessTara.[69]
Extremely rich and refined architectural remains are found in Java and Sumatra. The most magnificent is the temple ofBorobudur (the largest Buddhist structure in the world, built around 780–850 AD), built by Shailendras.[69] This temple is modelled after the Buddhist concept of universe, theMandala which counts 505 images of the seated Buddha and unique bell-shaped stupa that contains the statue of Buddha. Borobudur is adorned with long series of bas-reliefs narrated the holy Buddhist scriptures.[70] The oldest Buddhist structure in Indonesia probably is theBatujaya stupas at Karawang, West Java, dated from around the 4th century. This temple is some plastered brick stupas. However, Buddhist art in Indonesia reach the golden era during theShailendra dynasty rule in Java. The bas-reliefs and statues ofBoddhisatva,Tara, andKinnara found inKalasan,Sewu,Sari, andPlaosan temple is very graceful with serene expression, WhileMendut temple near Borobudur, houses the giant statue ofVairocana,Avalokitesvara, andVajrapani.
InSumatra Sri Vijaya probably built the temple of Muara Takus, andMuaro Jambi. The most beautiful example of classical Javanese Buddhist art is the serene and delicate statue ofPrajnaparamita of Java (the collection of National Museum Jakarta) the goddess of transcendental wisdom fromSinghasari kingdom.[71] The Indonesian Buddhist Empire of Sri Vijaya declined due to conflicts with theChola rulers of India, then followed byMajapahit empire.
In contemporary Indonesia, some Buddhist groups are developing new worship styles by adapting popular music to attract younger followers. A notable example is True Direction, a Buddhist rock band and music organization from Jakarta founded by Irvyn Wongso in 2015. The group creates what the author terms "Buddhist rock", rock and popular music with lyrics centered on Buddhist teachings, a style that resemblescontemporary Christian music. Rather than replacing traditional Buddhist devotional practices, True Direction aims to complement them, using music as an evangelical tool to engage youth who may not be interested in visiting temples. The organization functions as a music school, training musicians and producing modern Buddhist songs which they promote through albums likeDhamma is My Way and social media. While this innovative approach has been successful in reaching younger audiences in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore, it has also drawn criticism from some conservative Indonesian Buddhists who are concerned about the "Christianized" style and the potential for it to corrupt young people's understanding of the faith. Despite this, the movement signifies a "selective adaptation" of modern culture to repackage and propagate Buddhist doctrine in the world's largest Muslim nation.[72] Other notable Buddhist contemporary worship bands are Buddhist Worship, Sadhu United, and Kalyana Project.
The most important Buddhist religious event in Indonesia isVesak (Indonesian:Waisak). Once a year, during thefull moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe Vesak day commemorating the birth, death, and the time whenSiddhārtha Gautama attained the highest wisdom and became aBuddha. Vesak is an officialnational holiday in Indonesia[73] and the ceremony is centered at the three Buddhist temples by walking fromMendut toPawon and ending at Borobudur.[74] Vesak also is often celebrated in Sewu temple and numerous regional temples in Indonesia.
In Indonesia, the annualAsalha Puja (Indonesian:Asalha) celebration is also centered at Borobudur Temple, where it incorporates the Indonesia Tipiṭaka Chanting (ITC). Initiated in 2015, this event usually spans three days during which devotees recite passages from thePali Canon in thePali language and undertake theEight Precepts. The celebration culminates in a grandpuja procession where thousands of participants mindfully walk fromMendut to Borobudur, commemoratingthe Buddha's first sermon.[75][76]
In October 2010, theChinese-Indonesian community in the city ofTanjungbalai, North Sumatra, protested against the administration's plan to dismantle a statue of the Buddha on top of the Tri Ratna Temple.[77][78]
In July 2016, severalBuddhist temples were plundered and burned in Tanjungbalai, North Sumatra, following a protest triggered by a local resident of Chinese descent, Meliana, who had complained about the loud volume of theazan (the Islamic call to prayer) from a nearbymosque. Although Meliana later apologized, rumors circulated on social media incited a mob of around 1,000 people to attack Buddhist temples along with Chinese-Indonesian-owned shops and homes. Despite mediation efforts and appeals for calm by local figures, the violence escalated, leaving at least eightvihāras andpagodas damaged or set on fire. Authorities deployed hundreds of police and military personnel to restore order and later arrested several suspects in connection with the attacks, which drew widespread condemnation from religious and community leaders, and highlighted ongoing concerns about religious intolerance and misinformation in Indonesia.[79]
In November 2016, a homemadebomb was discovered in front of the Vihara Buddha Tirta, a Buddhist temple inLhokseumawe, Aceh.[80]
On 2 June 2020, several Buddhist activists reported Leo Pratama Limas, aChinese-Indonesian Buddhist fundamentalist, for alleged hate speech. His trial began on 24 September 2020 at the North Jakarta District Court, where he was charged under Indonesia’s Electronic Information and Transactions Law (ITE Law). The charges were based on hisYouTube sermons, which were deemed insulting toMahayana traditions. He was accused of callingGuanyin a “water demon” (setan air) and referring to the mainYiguandao deity (Wusheng Laomu) as a “female god” (tuhan betina). Leo was also alleged to have desecratedMahayana sutras such as theMahākaruṇā Dhāraṇī and theDiamond Sutra by stepping on, burning, and immersing them in water, as well as insultingAshin Jinarakkhita, founder of the inter-sectarianBuddhayana Council of Indonesia, whom he called a “stupid ascetic” (pertapa dungu). In his defense, Leo argued that his actions were not blasphemy but an effort to enlighten Buddhists he believed had gone astray, claiming the scriptures he damaged wereheretical because they were not written in thePali language.[81][82]
This includes a charter from mid 9th-cen- tury Nālandā, where a monastery for Sumatran monks was endowed by a Pāla king
Of the estimated five million ethnic Chinese in Indonesia, well over 70 percent are now Christian.
Muslim 231.069.932 (86.7), Christian 20.246.267 (7.6), Catholic 8.325.339 (3.12), Hindu 4.646.357 (1.74), Buddhist 2.062.150 (0.77), Confucianism 117091 (0.03), Other 299617 (0.13), Not Stated 139582 (0.06), Not Asked 757118 (0.32), Total 237641326
Media related toBuddhism in Indonesia at Wikimedia Commons
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