This article is about the Brussels-Capital Region. For the municipality within it, which is the de jure national capital, seeCity of Brussels. For other places, seeBrussels (disambiguation).
"Bruxelles" redirects here. For the Canadian community, seeBruxelles, Manitoba.
Brussels is the most densely populated region in Belgium, and although it has the highestGDP per capita,[25] it has the lowest available income per household.[26] The Brussels Region covers 162 km2 (63 sq mi) and has a population of over 1.2 million.[27] Its five times largermetropolitan area comprises over 2.5 million people, which makes it thelargest in Belgium.[28][29][30] It is also part of a largeconurbation extending towards the cities ofGhent,Antwerp, andLeuven, known as theFlemish Diamond, as well as the province ofWalloon Brabant, in total home to over 5 million people.[31] As Belgium's economic capital and a top financial centre in Western Europe withEuronext Brussels, Brussels is classified as anAlphaglobal city.[32] It is also a national and international hub for rail, road and air traffic,[33] and is sometimes considered, together with Belgium, as Europe's geographic, economic and cultural crossroads.[34][35][36] TheBrussels Metro is the onlyrapid transit system in Belgium. In addition, both itsairport andrailway stations are the largest and busiest in the country.[37][38]
Historically Dutch-speaking, Brussels saw alanguage shift to French from the late 19th century.[39] Since its creation in 1989, the Brussels-Capital Region has been officially bilingual in French and Dutch,[40][41] although French is the majority language andlingua franca.[42] Brussels is also increasingly becoming multilingual. English is spoken widely and many migrants andexpatriates speak other languages as well.[42][43]
The most common theory of the origin of the nameBrussels is that it derives from theOld DutchBruocsella,Broekzele orBroeksel, meaning'marsh' (bruoc /broek) and'home, settlement' (sella /zele /sel) or'settlement in the marsh'.[47][48] SaintVindicianus, the Bishop ofCambrai, made the first recorded reference to the placeBrosella in 695,[49] when it was still ahamlet. The names of all the municipalities in the Brussels-Capital Region are also of Dutch origin, except forEvere, which is possiblyCeltic orOld Frankish.[50]
In French,Bruxelles is pronounced[bʁysɛl]ⓘ (thex is pronounced/s/ and the finals is silent) and in Dutch,Brussel is pronounced[ˈbrʏsəl]ⓘ. Inhabitants of Brussels are known in French asBruxellois (pronounced[bʁysɛlwa]ⓘ) and in Dutch asBrusselaars (pronounced[ˈbrʏsəlaːrs]). In theBrabantian dialect of Brussels (known asBrusselian, and also sometimes referred to as Marols or Marollien),[51] they are calledBrusseleers orBrusseleirs.[52]
Originally, the writtenx was pronounced/ks/. In theBelgian French pronunciation as well as in Dutch, thek eventually disappeared, as reflected in the currentDutch spelling, whereas in the more conservativeFrench form, the spelling remained.[53] The pronunciation/ks/ in French only dates from the 18th century,[contradictory] but this modification did not affect the traditional Brussels usage. In France, the pronunciations[bʁyksɛl]ⓘ and[bʁyksɛlwa] (forbruxellois) are often heard, but are rather rare in Belgium.[54]
According to local legend, the origin of the settlement that was to become Brussels lies in SaintGaugericus' construction of a chapel onan island in the riverSenne around 580.[57] The official founding of Brussels is usually said to be around 979, whenCharles, Duke of Lower Lorraine, transferred therelics of themartyr SaintGudula fromMoorsel (located in today's province ofEast Flanders) to Saint Gaugericus' chapel. WhenOtto II, Holy Roman Emperor, appointed the same Charles to become Duke ofLower Lotharingia in 977,[58] Charles ordered the construction of the city's first permanent fortification, doing so on that same island.
Lambert I, Count of Louvain, gained the County of Brussels around 1000 by marrying Charles' daughter. Because of its location on the banks of the Senne, on animportant trade route between theFlemish cities ofBruges andGhent, andCologne in theKingdom of Germany, Brussels became a commercial centre specialised in the textile trade. The town grew quite rapidly and extended towards the upper town (Treurenberg,Coudenberg andSablon/Zavel areas), where there was a reduced risk of floods. As the town grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. In 1183, the Counts of Leuven becameDukes of Brabant. Brabant, unlike the county of Flanders, was not fief of the king of France but was incorporated into theHoly Roman Empire.
In the early 13th century, thefirst walls of Brussels were built[59] and after this, the city grew significantly. Around this time, work began on what is now theCathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula (1225), replacing an olderRomanesque church.[60] To let the city expand,a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Traces of these walls can still be seen; theSmall Ring, a series of boulevards bounding the historical city centre, follows their former course.
Philip died in 1506, and he was succeeded by his sonCharles V who then also becameKing of Spain (crowned in theCathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula) and even Holy Roman Emperor at the death of his grandfather Maximilian I in 1519. Charles was now the ruler of aHabsburg Empire "on which the sun never sets" with Brussels serving as one of his main capitals.[2][64] It was in theCoudenberg Palace that Charles V was declared of age in 1515, and it was there in 1555 that he abdicated all of his possessions and passed theHabsburg Netherlands to KingPhilip II of Spain.[65] This palace, famous all over Europe, had greatly expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant, but it was destroyed by fire in 1731.[66][67]
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Brussels was a centre for thelace industry. In addition,Brussels tapestry hung on the walls of castles throughout Europe.[68][69] In 1695, during theNine Years' War, KingLouis XIV of France sent troops tobombard Brussels with artillery. Together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels. The Grand-Place was destroyed, along with 4,000 buildings—a third of all the buildings in the city. The reconstruction ofthe city centre, effected during subsequent years, profoundly changed its appearance and left numerous traces still visible today.[70]
Brussels was one of the major European centres of theArt Nouveau style in the 1890s and early 1900s.[84] The architectsVictor Horta,Paul Hankar, andHenry van de Velde, among others, were known for their designs, many of which survive today.[85]
The 1927Solvay Conference in Brussels was the fifth world physics conference.
During the 20th century, the city hosted various fairs and conferences, including theSolvay Conference on Physics and on Chemistry, and threeworld's fairs: theBrussels International Exposition of 1910, theBrussels International Exposition of 1935 and the 1958 Brussels World's Fair (Expo 58).[83] DuringWorld War I, Brussels was anoccupied city. It escaped large-scale destruction,[86] although theinterwar period would still see a significant amount of (re)construction.[d][87] In November 1918, after theGerman Revolution had broken out, Brussels was embroiled in street battles between revolutionary soldiers who wanted to end the occupation and their imperialist counterparts; additionally, explosives left behind by retreating German troops damaged infrastructure and around 2,300 houses.[88]
After World War II, Brussels underwent extensive modernisation. The construction of theNorth–South connection, linking the main railway stations in the city, was completed in 1952, while the firstpremetro (underground tram) service was launched in 1969,[91] and the firstMetro line was opened in 1976.[92] Starting from the early 1960s, Brussels became thede facto capital of what would become theEuropean Union (EU), and many modern offices were built. Development was allowed to proceed with little regard to the aesthetics of newer buildings, and numerous architectural landmarks were demolished to make way for newer buildings that often clashed with their surroundings, giving name to the process ofBrusselisation.[93][94]
The Brussels-Capital Region was formed on 18 June 1989, after a constitutional reform in 1988.[95] It is one of the threefederal regions of Belgium, along withFlanders andWallonia, and has bilingual status.[12][13] Theyellow iris is the region's emblem (referring to the presence of these flowers on the city's original site) and a stylised version is featured on its official flag.[96]
A 2020 satellite image of the Greater Brussels area
Brussels lies in the north-central part of Belgium, about 110 km (68 mi) from the Belgian coast and about 180 km (110 mi) from the country's southern tip. It is located in the heartland of the Brabantian Plateau, about 45 km (28 mi) south ofAntwerp (Flanders), and 50 km (31 mi) north ofCharleroi (Wallonia). Its averageelevation is 57 m (187 ft) abovesea level, varying from a low point in the valley of the almost completely coveredSenne, which cuts the Brussels-Capital Region from east to west, up to high points in theSonian Forest, on its southeastern side. In addition to the Senne, tributary streams such as theMaelbeek and theWoluwe, to the east of the region, account for significant elevation differences.Brussels' central boulevards are 15 m (49 ft) above sea level.[107] Contrary to popular belief, the highest point (at 127.5 m (418 ft)) is not near thePlace de l'Altitude Cent/Hoogte Honderdplein inForest, but at theDrève des Deux Montages/Tweebergendreef in the Sonian Forest.[108]
Brussels experiences anoceanic climate (Köppen:Cfb) with warm summers and cool winters.[109] Proximity to coastal areas influences the area's climate by sending marine air masses from theAtlantic Ocean. Nearby wetlands also ensure a maritime temperate climate. On average (based on measurements in the period 1981–2010), there are approximately 135 days of rain per year in the Brussels-Capital Region. Snowfall is infrequent, averaging 24 days per year. The city also often experiences violent thunderstorms in the summer months.
Climate data for Uccle (Brussels-Capital Region) 1991–2020
Despite its name, the Brussels-Capital Region is not the capital ofBelgium. Article 194 of theBelgian Constitution establishes that the capital of Belgium is theCity of Brussels, the municipality in the region that is the city's core.[14]
The 19municipalities (French:communes, Dutch:gemeenten) of the Brussels-CapitalRegion are political subdivisions with individual responsibilities for the handling of local level duties, such as law enforcement and the upkeep of schools and roads within its borders.[118][119] Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.[119]
In 1831, Belgium was divided into 2,739 municipalities, including the 19 currently located in the Brussels-Capital Region.[120] Unlike most of the municipalities in Belgium, the ones now located in the Brussels-Capital Region were not merged with others during mergers occurring in 1964, 1970, and 1975.[120] However, a few neighbouring municipalities have been merged into theCity of Brussels, includingLaeken,Haren andNeder-Over-Heembeek in 1921.[121] These comprise the northern bulge in the municipality. To the south-east is a strip of land along theAvenue Louise/Louizalaan that, in addition to theBois de la Cambre/Ter Kamerenbos, was annexed fromIxelles in 1864. Part of theUniversité libre de Bruxelles (ULB)'sSolbosch/Solbos campus is also part of the City of Brussels, partially accounting for the bulge in the south-eastern end.
The largest municipality in area and population is the City of Brussels, covering 33.09 km2 (12.8 sq mi) and with 198,314 inhabitants;[122] the least populous isKoekelberg with 22,648 inhabitants.[123] The smallest in area isSaint-Josse-ten-Noode, which is only 1.16 km2 (0.4 sq mi), but still has the highest population density in the region, with 23,486/km2 (60,830/sq mi).[124]Watermael-Boitsfort has the lowest population density in the region, with 1,953/km2 (5,060/sq mi).[125]
There is much controversy on the division of 19 municipalities for a highly urbanised region, which is considered as (half of) one city by most people. Some politicians mock the "19 baronies" and want to merge the municipalities under one city council and one mayor.[126][127] That would lower the number of politicians needed to govern Brussels, and centralise the power over the city to make decisions easier, thus reduce the overall running costs. The current municipalities could be transformed into districts with limited responsibilities, similar to the current structure ofAntwerp or to structures of other capitals like theboroughs inLondon orarrondissements inParis, to keep politics close enough to the citizen.[128]
The Brussels-Capital Region is one of the three federated regions of Belgium, alongside theWalloon Region and theFlemish Region. Geographically and linguistically, it is a bilingualenclave in the monolingual Flemish Region. Regions are one component of Belgium's institutions; the three communities being the other component. Brussels' inhabitants deal with either theFrench Community or theFlemish Community for matters such as culture and education, as well as aCommon Community for competencies that do not belong exclusively to either Community, such as healthcare and socialwelfare.
The Brussels-Capital Region is governed by aparliament of 89 members (72 French-speaking, 17 Dutch-speaking—parties are organised on a linguistic basis) and an eight-member regional cabinet consisting of aminister-president, four ministers and threestate secretaries. By law, the cabinet must comprise two French-speaking and two Dutch-speaking ministers, one Dutch-speaking secretary of state and two French-speaking secretaries of state. The minister-president does not count against the language quota, but in practice every minister-president has been a bilingual francophone. The regional parliament can enactordinances (French:ordonnances, Dutch:ordonnanties), which have equal status as a national legislative act.
Nineteen of the 72 French-speaking members of the Brussels Parliament are also members of theParliament of the French Community of Belgium, and, until 2004, this was also the case for six Dutch-speaking members, who were at the same time members of theFlemish Parliament. Now, people voting for a Flemish party have to vote separately for six directly elected members of the Flemish Parliament.
Before the creation of the Brussels-Capital Region, regional competences in the 19 municipalities were performed by the Brussels Agglomeration. The Brussels Agglomeration was an administrative division established in 1971. This decentralised administrative public body also assumed jurisdiction over areas that, elsewhere in Belgium, were exercised by municipalities or provinces.[135]
The Brussels Agglomeration had a separate legislative council, but the by-laws it enacted did not have legislative status. The only election of the council took place on 21 November 1971. The working of the council was subject to many difficulties caused by the linguistic and socio-economic tensions between the two communities.
After the creation of the Brussels-Capital Region, the Brussels Agglomeration was never formally abolished, although it no longer has a purpose.
TheFrench Community and theFlemish Community exercise their powers in Brussels through two community-specific public authorities: theFrench Community Commission (French:Commission communautaire française or COCOF) and theFlemish Community Commission (Dutch:Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie or VGC). These two bodies each have an assembly composed of the members from each linguistic group in theParliament of the Brussels-Capital Region. They also have a board composed of the ministers and secretaries of state from each linguistic group in the Government of the Brussels-Capital Region.
The French Community Commission also has another capacity: some of the French Community's legislative powers have been devolved to the Walloon Region (for the French language area of Belgium) and to the French Community Commission (for the bilingual language area).[136] The Flemish Community, however, did the opposite; it merged the Flemish Region into the Flemish Community.[137] This is related the two linguistic groups having different conceptions, with one focusing more on the Communities and the other more on the Regions, causing an asymmetricalfederalism. Because of this devolution, the French Community Commission can enactdecrees, which are legislative acts.
A bi-communitarian public authority, theCommon Community Commission (French:Commission communautaire commune, COCOM, Dutch:Gemeenschappelijke Gemeenschapscommissie, GGC) also exists. Its assembly is composed of the members of the regional parliament, and its board are the region's ministers—not the secretaries of state—with the minister-president not having the right to vote. This commission has two capacities: it is a decentralised administrative public body, responsible for implementing cultural policies of common interest. It can give subsidies and enactby-laws. Additionally, it can also enact ordinances, which have equal status as a national legislative act, in the field of community welfare: in the Brussels-Capital Region, both the French Community and the Flemish Community can exercise powers in the field of welfare, but only in regard to institutions that are unilingual (for example, a private French-speaking retirement home or the Dutch-speaking hospital of theVrije Universiteit Brussel). The Common Community Commission is responsible for policies aiming directly at private persons or at bilingual institutions (for example, the centres for social welfare of the 19 municipalities). Its ordinances have to be enacted with a majority in both linguistic groups. Failing such a majority, a new vote can be held, where a majority of at least one third in each linguistic group is sufficient.
Brussels, along withLuxembourg and Strasbourg, began to host European institutions in 1957, soon becoming the centre of activities, as the Commission and Council based their activities in what has become theEuropean Quarter, in the east of the city.[138] Early building in Brussels was sporadic and uncontrolled, with little planning. The current major buildings are theBerlaymont building of the Commission, symbolic of the quarter as a whole, theEuropa building of the Council and theEspace Léopold of the Parliament.[139] In recent years, the presence has increased considerably, with the Commission alone occupying 865,000 m2 (9,310,000 sq ft) within the European Quarter (a quarter of the total office space in Brussels).[1] The concentration and density has caused concern that the presence of the institutions has created aghetto effect in that part of the city.[142] However, the European presence has contributed significantly to the importance of Brussels as an international centre.[143]
Brussels is third in the number of international conferences it hosts,[144] also becoming one of the largest convention centres in the world.[145] The presence of the EU and the other international bodies has, for example, led to there being more ambassadors and journalists in Brussels than inWashington, D.C.[143] The city hosts 120 international institutions, 181embassies (intra muros) and more than 2,500diplomats, making it the second centre of diplomatic relations in the world (afterNew York City).International schools have also been established to serve this presence.[145] The "international community" in Brussels numbers at least 70,000 people.[146] In 2009, there were an estimated 286lobbying consultancies known to work in Brussels.[147] Finally, Brussels has more than 1,400NGOs.[148][149]
TheTreaty of Brussels, which was signed on 17 March 1948 between Belgium,France,Luxembourg, theNetherlands and theUnited Kingdom, was a prelude to the establishment of theintergovernmentalmilitary alliance that later became the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).[150] As of 2024[update], the alliance consists of 32 independent member countries acrossNorth America and Europe. Several countries also have diplomatic missions to NATOthrough embassies in Belgium. Since 1949, a number ofNATO Summits have been held in Brussels,[151] the most recent taking place in June 2021.[102] The organisation's political and administrativeheadquarters are located on theBoulevard Léopold III/Leopold III-laan inHaren, on the north-eastern perimeter of theCity of Brussels.[152] A new €750 million headquarters building begun in 2010 and was completed in 2017.[153]
The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation, commonly known as Eurocontrol, is aninternational organisation that coordinates and plansair traffic control across Europeanairspace. The corporation was founded in 1960 and has 41 member states.[154] Its headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels.
Population density of Europe. Brussels is located between the largest urban centres.
Brussels is located in one of the mosturbanised regions of Europe, betweenParis,London, theRhine-Ruhr (Germany), and theRandstad (Netherlands). The Brussels-Capital Region has a population of around 1.2 million and has witnessed, in recent years, a remarkable increase in its population. In general, the population of Brussels is younger than the national average, and the gap between rich and poor is wider.[155]
Brussels is the core of a built-up area that extends well beyond the region's limits. Sometimes referred to as the urban area of Brussels (French:aire urbaine de Bruxelles, Dutch:stedelijk gebied van Brussel) or Greater Brussels (French:Grand-Bruxelles, Dutch:Groot-Brussel), this area extends over a large part of the two Brabant provinces, including much of the surroundingarrondissement of Halle-Vilvoorde and some small parts of thearrondissement of Leuven inFlemish Brabant, as well as the northern part ofWalloon Brabant.
The metropolitan area of Brussels is divided into three levels. Firstly, the central agglomeration (within the regional borders), with a population of 1,218,255 inhabitants.[27] Adding the closest suburbs (French:banlieues, Dutch:buitenwijken) gives a total population of 1,831,496. Including the outercommuter zone (Brussels Regional Express Network (RER/GEN) area), the population is 2,676,701.[29][30] Brussels is also part of a widerdiamond-shapedconurbation, withGhent,Antwerp andLeuven, which has about 4.4 million inhabitants (a little more than 40% of the Belgium's total population).[31][156]
Since the second half of the 20th century, Brussels has been home to a large number of immigrants andémigré communities, as well as labour migrants, former foreign students orexpatriates, and many Belgian families in Brussels can claim at least one foreign grandparent. At the last Belgian census in 1991, 63.7% of inhabitants in Brussels-Capital Region answered that they were Belgian citizens, born as such in Belgium, indicating that more than a third of residents had not been born in the country.[162][163] According toStatbel (the Belgian Statistical Office), in 2020, taking into account the parents' nationality of birth, 74.3% of the population of the Brussels-Capital Region was of foreign origin and 41.8% was of non-European origin (including 28.7% of African origin). Among those aged under 18, 88% were of foreign origin and 57% of non-European origin (including 42.4% of African origin).[164]
This large concentration of immigrants and their descendants includes many ofMoroccan (mainlyRiffian and otherBerbers) andTurkish ancestry, together with French-speaking black Africans from formerBelgian colonies, such as theDemocratic Republic of the Congo,Rwanda andBurundi. Many immigrants werenaturalised following the great 1991 reform of the naturalisation process. In 2012, about 32% of city residents were of non-BelgianEuropean origin (mainly expatriates from France, Romania, Italy, Spain, Poland, and Portugal) and 36% were of another background, mostly from Morocco, Turkey andSub-Saharan Africa. Among all major migrant groups from outside the EU, a majority of the permanent residents have acquired Belgian nationality.[165]
Although a majority of the population remained bilingual until the second half of the 20th century,[190][172] family transmission of the historic Brabantian dialect[191] declined,[192] leading to an increase of monolingual French-speakers from 1910 onwards.[185][193] From the mid-20th century, the number of monolingual French-speakers surpassed the number of mostly bilingual Flemish inhabitants.[194] This process of assimilation weakened after the 1960s,[190][195] as thelanguage border was fixed, the status of Dutch as an official language of Belgium was reinforced,[196] and the economic centre of gravity shifted northward toFlanders.[180][188] However, with the continuing arrival of immigrants and the post-war emergence of Brussels as acentre of international politics, the relative position of Dutch continued to decline.[197][170][198][199][190][192] Furthermore, as Brussels' urban area expanded,[200] a further number of Dutch-speaking municipalities in theBrussels periphery also became predominantly French-speaking.[196][201] This phenomenon of expanding Francisation — dubbed "oil slick" by its opponents[172][202][190] — is, together with the future of Brussels,[203] one of the most controversial topics inBelgian politics.[188][183]
Bilingual French and Dutch street signs in Brussels
Since its creation in 1989, the Brussels-Capital Region has been legally bilingual, with both French and Dutch having official status,[204] as is the administration of the 19 municipalities.[197] The creation of this bilingual, full-fledged region, with its own competencies and jurisdiction, had long been hampered by different visions of Belgian federalism. Nevertheless, some communitarian issues remain.[205][206] Flemish political parties demanded, for decades, that the Flemish part ofBrussels-Halle-Vilvoorde (BHV)arrondissement be separated from the Brussels Region (which made Halle-Vilvoorde a monolingual Flemish electoral and judicial district). BHV was divided mid-2012. The French-speaking population regards the language border as artificial[207] and demands the extension of the bilingual region to at least all sixmunicipalities with language facilities in the surroundings of Brussels.[e] Flemish politicians have strongly rejected these proposals.[208][209][210]
Owing to migration and to its international role, Brussels is home to a large number of native speakers of languages other than French or Dutch. Currently, about half of the population speaks a home language other than these two.[211] In 2013, academic research showed that approximately 17% of families spoke none of the official languages in the home, while in a further 23% a foreign language was used alongside French. The share of unilingual French-speaking families had fallen to 38% and that of Dutch-speaking families to 5%, while the percentage of bilingual Dutch-French families reached 17%. At the same time, French remains widely spoken: in 2013, French was spoken "well to perfectly" by 88% of the population, while for Dutch this percentage was only 23% (down from 33% in 2000);[197] the other most commonly known languages were English (30%), Arabic (18%), Spanish (9%), German (7%) and Italian and Turkish (5% each).[166] Meanwhile, surveys from 2023 to 2024 suggest that 29% of the population speaks only languages other than French and Dutch in the home, while residents speak a total of 104 languages, up from 72 in 2001.[212] Despite the rise of English as a second language in Brussels, including as an unofficial compromise language between French and Dutch, as well as the working language for some of its international businesses and institutions, French remains thelingua franca and all public services are conducted exclusively in French or Dutch.[197]
The original dialect of Brussels (known asBrusselian, and also sometimes referred to as Marols or Marollien),[51] a form ofBrabantic (the variant of Dutch spoken in the ancientDuchy of Brabant) with a significant number of loanwords from French, still survives among a small minority of inhabitants calledBrusseleers[52] (orBrusseleirs), many of them quite bi- and multilingual, or educated in French and not writing in Dutch.[213][51] The ethnic and national self-identification of Brussels' inhabitants is nonetheless sometimes quite distinct from the French and Dutch-speaking communities. For the French-speakers, it can vary from Francophone Belgian,Bruxellois[54] (Frenchdemonym for an inhabitant of Brussels),Walloon (for people who migrated from the Walloon Region at an adult age); for Flemings living in Brussels, it is mainly either Dutch-speaking Belgian, Flemish orBrusselaar (Dutch demonym for an inhabitant), and often both. For theBrusseleers, many simply consider themselves as belonging to Brussels.[51]
In reflection of its multicultural makeup, Brussels hosts a variety of religious communities, as well as large numbers ofatheists andagnostics. Minority faiths include Islam,Anglicanism,Eastern Orthodoxy,Judaism, and Buddhism. According to a 2016 survey, approximately 40% of residents of Brussels declared themselves Catholics (12% were practising Catholics and 28% were non-practising Catholics), 30% werenon-religious, 23% wereMuslim (19% practising, 4% non-practising), 3% were Protestants and 4% were of another religion.[214]
As guaranteed by Belgian law, recognised religions and non-religious philosophical organisations (French:organisations laïques, Dutch:vrijzinnige levensbeschouwelijke organisaties)[218] enjoy public funding and school courses. It was once the case that every pupil in an official school from 6 to 18 years old had to choose two hours per week of compulsory religious—or non-religious-inspired morals—courses. However, in 2015, theBelgian Constitutional Court ruled religious studies could no longer be required in theprimary andsecondary educational systems.[219]
Brussels has a large concentration ofMuslims, mostly of Moroccan, Turkish, Syrian and Guinean ancestry. TheGreat Mosque of Brussels, located in theParc du Cinquantenaire/Jubelpark, is the oldestmosque in Brussels and the former seat of the Islamic and Cultural Centre of Belgium.[220] Belgium does not collect statistics by ethnic background or religious beliefs, so exact figures are unknown.[221] It was estimated that, in 2005, people of Muslim background living in the Brussels Region numbered 256,220 and accounted for 25.5% of the city's population, a much higher concentration than those of the other regions of Belgium.[222][better source needed]
TheAtomium is a symbolic 103 m-tall (338 ft)modernist structure, located on the Heysel Plateau, which was originally built for the 1958 World's Fair (Expo 58). It consists of nine steel spheres connected by tubes, and forms a model of anironcrystal (specifically, aunit cell), magnified 165 billion times. The architectAndré Waterkeyn devoted the building to science. It is now considered alandmark of Brussels.[231][232] Next to the Atomium, isMini-Europeminiature park, with 1:25 scalemaquettes of famous buildings from across Europe.
The city's embrace of modern architecture translated into an ambivalent approach towards historic preservation, leading to the destruction of notable architectural landmarks, most famously theMaison du Peuple/Volkshuis by Victor Horta, a process known asBrusselisation.[93][94]
The Brussels Museums Council is an independent body for all the museums in the Brussels-Capital Region, covering around 100 federal, private, municipal, and community museums.[234] It promotes member museums through the Brussels Card (giving access to public transport and 30 of the 100 museums), the Brussels Museums Nocturnes (every Thursday from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m. from mid-September to mid-December) and the Museum Night Fever (an event for and by young people on a Saturday night in late February or early March).[235]
TheKunstenfestivaldesarts, an international performing arts festival, is organised every year in May. Its main hub is the Kaaitheater, but performances and artworks are also hosted in around 30 venues throughout the city.[237][238]
Many events are organised or hosted in Brussels throughout the year. In addition, many festivals animate the Brussels scene.
TheIris Festival is the official festival of the Brussels-Capital Region and is held annually in spring.[242] The International Fantastic Film Festival of Brussels (BIFFF) is organised during the Easter holidays[243] and theMagritte Awards in February. TheFestival of Europe, an open day and activities in and around theEuropean Union's institutions, is held on 9 May. OnBelgian National Day, on 21 July, a military parade and celebrations take place on thePlace des Palais/Paleizenplein and inBrussels Park, ending with a fireworks display in the evening.
Some summer festivities includeCouleur Café Festival, a festival ofworld andurban music, around the end of June or early July, theBrussels Summer Festival (BSF), a music festival in August,[244] theMidi Fair, the most important yearly fair in Brussels, lasting more than a month, in July and August,[245] and Brussels Beach, when the banks of thecanal are turned into a temporary urban beach.[246] Other biennial events are theZinneke Parade, a colourful, multicultural parade through the city, which has been held since 2000 in May, as well as the popularFlower Carpet at theGrand-Place in August.Heritage Days are organised on the third weekend of September (sometimes coinciding with the car-free day) and are a good opportunity to discover the wealth of buildings, institutions and real estate in Brussels. The "Winter Wonders" animate the heart of Brussels in December; these winter activities were launched in Brussels in 2001.[247][248]
TheMeyboom, an even-older folk tradition of Brussels (1308), celebrating the "May tree"—in fact, a corruption of the Dutch word, meaningtree of joy—takes place paradoxically on 9 August. After parading a youngbeech in the city, it is planted in a joyful spirit with lots of music,Brusseleir songs, and processional giants. It has also been recognised as an expression ofintangible cultural heritage by UNESCO, as part of the bi-national inscription "Processional giants and dragons in Belgium and France".[252][253] The celebration is reminiscent of the town's long-standing (folkloric) feud withLeuven, which dates back to theMiddle Ages.
Brussels is well known for its localwaffle, itschocolate, itsFrench fries and its numerous types ofbeers. TheBrussels sprout, which has long been popular in Brussels, and may have originated there, is also named after the city.[259]
Owing to Brussels' cosmopolitan population, almost every national cuisine in the world can be found there. The gastronomic offer includes approximately 1,800restaurants (including three 2-starred and ten 1-starredMichelin restaurants),[260] and a number of bars. In addition to the traditional restaurants, there are manycafés,bistros and the usual range of internationalfast food chains. The cafés are similar to bars, and offer beer and light dishes;coffee houses are calledsalons de thé (literally "tea salons"). Also widespread arebrasseries, which usually offer a variety of beers and typical national dishes.
Belgian cuisine is known among connoisseurs as one of the best in Europe. It is characterised by the combination ofFrench cuisine with the more hearty Flemish fare. Notable specialities includeBrussels waffles (gaufres) andmussels (usually asmoules-frites, served with fries). The city is a stronghold ofchocolate andpraline manufacturers with renowned companies likeCôte d'Or,Neuhaus,Leonidas andGodiva. Pralines were first introduced in 1912 by Jean Neuhaus II, a Belgianchocolatier of Swiss origin, in theRoyal Saint-Hubert Galleries.[261] Numerousfriteries are spread throughout the city, and in tourist areas, fresh hot waffles are also sold on the street.
As well as otherBelgian beers, thespontaneously fermentedlambic style, brewed in and around Brussels, is widely available there and in the nearbySenne valley where the wildyeasts that ferment it have their origin.[262]Kriek, a cherry lambic, is available in almost every bar or restaurant in Brussels.
Famousshopping areas in Brussels include the pedestrian-onlyRue Neuve/Nieuwstraat, the second busiest shopping street in Belgium (after theMeir, inAntwerp) with a weekly average of 230,000 visitors,[264][265] home to popular international chains (H&M,C&A,Zara,Primark), as well as the City 2 and Anspach galleries.[266] TheRoyal Saint-Hubert Galleries hold a variety of luxury shops and some six million people stroll through them each year.[267] The neighbourhood around theRue Antoine Dansaert/Antoine Dansaertstraat has become, in recent years, a focal point for fashion and design;[268] this main street and its side streets also feature Belgium's young and most happening artistic talent.[269]
In Ixelles, theAvenue de la Toison d'Or/Gulden-Vlieslaan and theNamur Gate area offer a blend of luxury shops, fast food restaurants and entertainment venues, and theChaussée d'Ixelles/Elsenesteenweg, in the mainly-CongoleseMatongé district, offers a taste ofAfrican fashion and lifestyle. The nearbyAvenue Louise/Louizalaan is lined with high-end fashion stores and boutiques, making it one of the most expensive streets in Belgium.[270]
There are shopping centres outside the inner ring: Basilix, Woluwe Shopping Center, Westland Shopping Center, and Docks Bruxsel, which opened in October 2017.[266] In addition, Brussels ranks as one of Europe's best capital cities forflea market shopping. TheOld Market, on thePlace du Jeu de Balle/Vossenplein, in theMarolles/Marollen neighbourhood, is particularly renowned.[271] The nearbySablon/Zavel area is home to many of Brussels'antique dealers.[272] TheMidi Market aroundBrussels-South station and theBoulevard du Midi/Zuidlaan is reputed to be one of the largest markets in Europe.[273]
Sport in Brussels is under the responsibility of theCommunities. TheAdministration de l'Éducation Physique et du Sport (ADEPS) is responsible for recognising the various French-speaking sports federations and also runs three sports centres in the Brussels-Capital Region.[274] Its Dutch-speaking counterpart isSport Vlaanderen (formerly calledBLOSO).[275]
Other Brussels clubs that played in the national series over the years wereRoyal White Star Bruxelles, Ixelles SC,Crossing Club de Schaerbeek (born from a merger between RCS de Schaerbeek and Crossing Club Molenbeek), Scup Jette, RUS de Laeken, Racing Jet de Bruxelles, AS Auderghem, KV Wosjot Woluwe and FC Ganshoren.
Serving as the centre of administration for Belgium and Europe, Brussels' economy is largelyservice-oriented. It is dominated by regional and world headquarters ofmultinationals, by European institutions, by various local and federal administrations, and by related services companies, though it does have a number of notablecraft industries, such as theCantillon Brewery, alambic brewery founded in 1900.[285]
Brussels has a robust economy. The region contributes to one fifth of Belgium'sGDP, and its 550,000 jobs account for 17.7% of Belgium's employment.[286] ItsGDP per capita is nearly double that of Belgium as a whole,[25] and it has the highest GDP per capita of anyNUTS 1 region in the EU, at ~$80,000 in 2016.[287] However, the GDP is boosted by a massive inflow ofcommuters from neighbouring regions; over half of those who work in Brussels live in Flanders or Wallonia, with 230,000 and 130,000 commuters per day respectively. Conversely, only 16.0% of Brussels residents work outside the region (68,827 (68.5%) of them in Flanders and 21,035 (31.5%) in Wallonia).[288] Not all of the wealth generated in Brussels remains in the region, and as of December 2013[update], the unemployment among its residents is 20.4%.[289]
There are approximately 50,000businesses in Brussels, of which around 2,200 are foreign. This number is constantly increasing and can well explain the role of Brussels in Europe. The city'sinfrastructure is very favourable in terms of starting up a new business. House prices have also increased in recent years, especially with the increase of youngprofessionals settling down in Brussels, making it the most expensive city to live in Belgium.[290] In addition, Brussels holds more than 1,000 business conferences annually, making it the ninth most popular conference city in Europe.[291]
Brussels is a centre of both media and communications in Belgium, with many Belgian television stations, radio stations,newspapers and telephone companies having their headquarters in the region. The French-languagepublic broadcasterRTBF, the Dutch-language public broadcasterVRT, the two regional channels BX1 (formerly Télé Bruxelles)[292] andBruzz (formerly TV Brussel),[293] the encryptedBeTV channel and private channelsRTL-TVI andVTM are headquartered in Brussels. Some national newspapers such asLe Soir,La Libre,De Morgen and thenews agencyBelga are based in or around Brussels. The Belgianpostal companybpost, as well as the telecommunication companies and mobile operatorsProximus,Orange Belgium andTelenet are all located there.
As English is spoken widely,[42][43] several English media organisations operate in Brussels. The most popular of these are the English-language daily news media platform and bi-monthly magazineThe Brussels Times and the websiteThe Bulletin. Dutch-language public broadcaster VRT has alsoEnglish version of its online news. Themultilingualpan-European news channelEuronews also maintains an office in Brussels.[294]
There are severaluniversities in Brussels. Except for theRoyal Military Academy, a federal military college established in 1834,[295] all universities in Brussels are private and autonomous. The Royal Military Academy also the only Belgian university organised on theboarding school model.[296]
TheUniversité libre de Bruxelles (ULB), a French-speaking university, with about 20,000 students, has three campuses in the city,[297] and theVrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), itsDutch-speaking sister university, has about 10,000 students.[298] Both universities originate from a single ancestor university, founded in 1834, namely theFree University of Brussels, which was split in 1970, at about the same time the Flemish and French Communities gained legislative power over the organisation of higher education.[299]
Most of Brussels pupils between the ages of 3 and 18 go to schools organised by theFrench-speaking Community or theFlemish Community, with close to 80% going to French-speaking schools, and roughly 20% to Dutch-speaking schools. Due to the post-war international presence in the city, there are also a number of international schools, including theInternational School of Brussels, with 1,450 pupils, between the ages of2+1⁄2 and 18,[307] theBritish School of Brussels, and the fourEuropean Schools, which provide free education for the children of those working in theEU institutions. The combined student population of the fourEuropean Schools in Brussels is around 10,000.[308]
Brussels has a number of public or private-ownedlibraries on its territory.[309] Most public libraries in Brussels fall under the competence of the Communities and are usually separated between French-speaking and Dutch-speaking institutions, although some are mixed.[verification needed]
TheRoyal Library of Belgium (KBR) is thenational library of Belgium and one of the most prestigious libraries in the world. It owns several collections of historical importance, like the famousFétis archives, and is the depository for all books ever published in Belgium or abroad by Belgian authors. It is located on theMont des Arts/Kunstberg in central Brussels, near theCentral Station.[310]
Science and technology in Brussels is well-developed with the presence of severaluniversities and research institutes. The Brussels-Capital Region is home to several national science and technology institutes including theNational Fund for Scientific Research (NFSR), the Institute for the Encouragement of Scientific Research and Innovation of Brussels (ISRIB), theRoyal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium (RASAB) and theBelgian Academy Council of Applied Sciences (BACAS). Several science parks associated with the universities are also spread over the region.
Brussels is home to a thrivingpharmaceutical andhealth care industry, which includes pioneeringbiotechnology research. The health sector employs 70,000 employees in 30,000 companies. There are 3,000 life sciences researchers in the city and two largescience parks: Da Vinci Research Park and Erasmus Research Park. There are fiveuniversity hospitals, amilitary hospital and more than 40 general hospitals and specialist clinics.[317]
Due toits bilingual nature, hospitals in the Brussels-Capital Region can be either monolingual French, monolingual Dutch, or bilingual, depending on their nature. University hospitals belong to one of the twolinguistic communities and are thus monolingual French or Dutch by law. Other hospitals managed by a public authority must be legally bilingual. Private hospitals are legally not bound to either language, but most cater to both. However, all hospital emergency services in the Capital Region (whether part of a public or private hospital) are required to be bilingual, since patients transported by emergencyambulance cannot choose the hospital they will be brought to.[318]
The complexity of the Belgian political landscape makes some transportation issues difficult to solve. The Brussels-Capital Region is surrounded by theFlemish andWalloon regions, which means that the airports, as well as many roads serving Brussels (most notably theBrussels Ring), are located in the other two Belgian regions. The city is relatively car-dependent by northern European standards and is considered to be the most congested city in the world according to theINRIX traffic survey.[319]
The Brussels-Capital Region is served by two airports, both located outside of the region's administrative territory. The most notable isBrussels Airport, located in the nearby Flemish municipality ofZaventem, 12 km (10 mi) east of the capital, which can be accessed by motorway (A201), train, taxi and bus. Brussels National Airport has its own railway station. This station is located in the underground (level -1) of the airport terminal building itself. The secondary airport isBrussels South Charleroi Airport, located inGosselies, a part of the city ofCharleroi (Wallonia), some 50 km (30 mi) south-west of Brussels, which can be accessed by motorway (E19 then E420) or a private bus. There is alsoMelsbroek Air Base, located inSteenokkerzeel, a military airport that shares its infrastructure with Brussels Airport. The aforementioned airports are also the main airports of Belgium.[320]
Since the 16th century, Brussels has had its own harbour, thePort of Brussels. It has been enlarged throughout the centuries to become the second Belgian inland port. Historically situated near thePlace Sainte-Catherine/Sint-Katelijneplein, it lies today to the north-west of the region, on theBrussels–Scheldt Maritime Canal (commonly called Willebroek Canal), which connects Brussels toAntwerp via theScheldt. Ships and large barges up to 4,500 t (9,900,000 lb) can penetrate deep into the country, avoiding break-ups and load transfers between Antwerp and the centre of Brussels, hence reducing the cost for companies using the canal, and thus offering a competitive advantage.
Moreover, the connection of the Willebroek Canal with theBrussels–Charleroi Canal, in the very heart of the capital, creates a north–south link, by means of waterways, between the Netherlands, Flanders and the industrial zone ofHainaut (Wallonia). There, navigation can access the network of French canals, thanks to the importantinclined plane ofRonquières and the lifts ofStrépy-Bracquegnies.
The importance of river traffic in Brussels makes it possible to avoid the road equivalent of 740,000 trucks per year—almost 2,000 per day—which, in addition to easing traffic problems, represents an estimated carbon dioxide saving of 51,545 t (113,637,000 lb) per year.[321]
The train rails in Brussels go underground, near the centre, through theNorth–South connection, with Brussels Central Station also being largely underground. The tunnel itself is only six tracks wide at its narrowest point, which often causes congestion and delays due to heavy use of the route.
A comprehensivebus andtram network covers the region. As of 2017[update], the Brussels tram system consists of 17 tram lines (three of which – linesT4,T7 and T10 – qualify aspremetro lines that partly travel over underground sections that were intended to be eventually converted into metro lines).[325] The total route length is 139 km (86 mi),[324] making it one of the largest tram networks in Europe. The Brussels bus network is complementary to the rail network. It consists of 50 bus routes and 11 night routes, spanning 445 km (277 mi).[324]
Since April 2007, STIB/MIVB has also been operating a night bus network called Noctis on Friday and Saturday nights from midnight until 3 a.m.[326] The service consists of 11 routes (N04, N05, N06, N08, N09, N10, N11, N12, N13, N16 and N18).[327] The fare on these night buses is the same as during the day. All the lines leave from thePlace de la Bourse/Beursplein in the city centre at 30 minutes intervals and cover all the main streets in the capital, as they radiate outwards to the suburbs.[328] Noctis services returned from 2 July 2021 after over a year of disruption due to theCOVID-19 pandemic in Belgium.[326]
MoBIB is the STIB/MIVB electronic smart card, introduced in 2007, replacing the discontinued paper tickets. The hourly travel fare includes all means of transport (metro, tram and bus) operated by STIB/MIVB. Each trip has a different cost depending on the type of support purchased. Passengers can purchase monthly passes, yearly passes, 1 and 10-trip tickets and daily and 3-day passes. These can be bought over the Internet, but require customers to have a smart card reader. GO vending machines accept coins, local and international chip and PIN credit and debit cards.
Moreover, a complimentary interticketing system means that a combined STIB/MIVB ticket holder can, depending on the option, also use the train network operated by NMBS/SNCB and/or long-distance buses and commuter services operated by De Lijn or TEC. With this ticket, a single journey can include multiple stages across the different modes of transport and networks.
Since 2003, Brussels has had a car-sharing service operated by theBremen company Cambio, in partnership with STIB/MIVB and the local ridesharing company Taxi Stop.[329] In 2006, apublic bicycle-sharing programme was introduced. The scheme was subsequently taken over byVillo!. Since 2008, this night-time public transport service has been supplemented by Collecto, a shared taxi system, which operates on weekdays between 11 p.m. and 6 a.m.[330] In 2012, the Zen Car electric car-sharing scheme was launched in the university and European areas, though it ceased operating in the city in 2020.[331]
In medieval times, Brussels stood at the intersection of routes running north–south (the modernRue Haute/Hoogstraat) and east–west (Chaussée de Gand/Gentsesteenweg–Rue du Marché aux Herbes/Grasmarkt–Rue de Namur/Naamsestraat). The ancient pattern of streets, radiating from theGrand-Place, in large part remains, but has been overlaid by boulevards builtover the river Senne,over the city walls and over the railway connection between the North and South Stations. In 2012, Brussels had the most congested traffic in Europe and North America, according to US traffic information platformINRIX.[332]
Brussels is the hub of a range of national roads, the main ones being clockwise: theN1 (N toBreda),N2 (E toMaastricht),N3 (E toAachen),N4 (SE toLuxembourg),N5 (S toReims), N6 (S toMaubeuge), N7 (SW toLille),N8 (W toKoksijde) and N9 (NW toOstend).[333] Usually namedchaussées/steenwegen, these roads normally run in a straight line, but sometimes lose themselves in a maze of narrow shopping streets. The region is skirted by theEuropean route E19 (N-S) and theE40 (E-W), while theE411 leads away to the SE. Brussels has anorbital motorway, numbered R0 (R-zero) and commonly referred to as theRing. It is pear-shaped, as the southern side was never built as originally conceived, owing to residents' objections.
The city centre, sometimes known as thePentagon, is surrounded by an inner ring road, theSmall Ring (French:Petite Ceinture, Dutch:Kleine Ring), a sequence of boulevards formally numbered R20. These were built upon the site of thesecond set of city walls following their demolition. TheMetro line 2 runs alongside (not actually under) much of these. Since June 2015, a number ofcentral boulevards inside the Pentagon have become car-free, limiting transit traffic through the old city.[334]
On the eastern side of the region, the R21 orGreater Ring (French:Grande Ceinture, Dutch:Grote Ring) is formed by a string of boulevards that curves round fromLaeken toUccle. Somepremetro stations (seeBrussels Metro) were built on that route. A little further out, a stretch numbered R22 leads from Zaventem toSaint-Job.
The Brussels local police, supported by the federal police, is responsible for law enforcement in Brussels. The 19 municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region are divided into six police zones,[335] all bilingual (French and Dutch):
The Brussels Fire and Emergency Medical Care Service, commonly known by its acronym SIAMU (DBDMH), operates in the 19 municipalities of Brussels.[336] It is a class X fire department and the largestfire service in Belgium in terms of annual operations, equipment, and personnel. It has 9fire stations, spread over the entire Brussels-Capital Region, and employs about 1,000 professionalfirefighters. As well as preventing and fighting fires, SIAMU also provides emergency medical care services in Brussels via its centralised 100 number (and the single 112 emergency number for the 27 countries of the European Union). It is bilingual (French–Dutch).
Brussels is one of the greenest capitals in Europe, with over 8,000 hectares of green spaces.[337] Vegetation cover and natural areas are higher in the outskirts, where they have limited theperi-urbanisation of the capital, but they decrease sharply towards the centre of Brussels; 10% in the centralPentagon, 30% of the municipalities in the first ring, and 71% of the municipalities in the second ring are occupied by green spaces.
^abcHerbez, Ariel (30 May 2009)."Bruxelles, capitale de la BD".Le Temps (in French). Switzerland. Retrieved28 May 2010.Plus que jamais, Bruxelles mérite son statut de capitale de la bande dessinée.[dead link]
^"be.STAT". bestat.statbel.fgov.be.Archived from the original on 24 September 2024. Retrieved31 July 2024.
^abThe Belgian Constitution(PDF). Brussels: Belgian House of Representatives. May 2014. p. 5. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 10 August 2015. Retrieved10 September 2015.Article 3:Belgium comprises three Regions: the Flemish Region, the Walloon Region and the Brussels Region. Article 4: Belgium comprises four linguistic regions: the Dutch-speaking region, the French-speaking region, the bilingual region of Brussels-Capital and the German-speaking region.
^ab"Brussels-Capital Region / Creation". Centre d'Informatique pour la Région Bruxelloise [Brussels Regional Informatics Center]. 2009. Archived fromthe original on 29 April 2009. Retrieved5 June 2009.Since 18 June 1989, the date of the first regional elections, the Brussels-Capital Region has been an autonomous region comparable to the Flemish and Walloon Regions. (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.)
^abThe Belgian Constitution(PDF). Brussels, Belgium: Belgian House of Representatives. May 2014. p. 63. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 10 August 2015. Retrieved10 September 2015.Article 194: The city of Brussels is the capital of Belgium and the seat of the Federal Government.
^ab"Statistics Belgium;De Belgische Stadsgewesten 2001"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 29 October 2008. Retrieved19 October 2008. Definitions of metropolitan areas in Belgium. The metropolitan area of Brussels is divided into three levels. First, the central agglomeration (geoperationaliseerde agglomeratie) with 1,451,047 inhabitants (2008-01-01, adjusted to municipal borders). Adding the closest surroundings (suburbs,banlieue orbuitenwijken) gives a total of 1,831,496. And, including the outer commuter zone (forensenwoonzone) the population is 2,676,701.
^"Statistics".Brussels Airport Website. Archived fromthe original on 18 March 2011. Retrieved3 August 2018.
^Schaepdrijver, Sophie de (1990).Elites for the Capital?: Foreign Migration to mid-nineteenth-century Brussels. Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers.ISBN9789051700688.
^abO'Donnell, Paul; Toebosch, AnneMarie.Multilingualism in Brussels: "I'd Rather Speak English". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2008, v. 29 n. 2 p. 154-169.
^"Zo ontstond Brussel" [This is how Brussels originated] (in Dutch). Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie [Commission of the Flemish Community in Brussels]. Archived fromthe original on 20 November 2007.
^Souchal, Geneviève (ed.),Masterpieces of Tapestry from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century: An Exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, p. 108, 1974, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.), Galeries nationales du Grand Palais (France),ISBN0870990861, 9780870990861,google booksArchived 29 October 2021 at theWayback Machine
^Campbell, ed.Tapestry in the Renaissance: Art and Magnificence, exhibition catalogue,Metropolitan Museum of Art 2002.
^Software, A7."Accessibility".Wallonia.be.Archived from the original on 23 May 2022. Retrieved16 June 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^"Recognised NGOs".diplomatie. 23 March 2016.Archived from the original on 18 May 2022. Retrieved16 June 2022.
^Population – Nationalités (Report) (in French). Brussels Institute for Statistics and Analysis. Tabel 1.3.1.4 – Principales nationalités actuelles : 2022 (au 1er janvier). Archived fromthe original(XLS) on 17 October 2023. Retrieved24 September 2023.
^Van Parijs, Philippe."Belgium's new linguistic challenges"(PDF).KVS Express (Supplement to Newspaper de Morgen) March–April 2007: Article fromoriginal source (pdf 4.9 MB) pages 34–36 republished by the Belgian Federal Government Service (ministry) of Economy – Directorate–general Statistics Belgium. Archived fromthe original(pdf 0.7 MB) on 13 June 2007. Retrieved5 May 2007. – The linguistic situation in Belgium (and in particular various estimations of the population speaking French and Dutch in Brussels) is discussed in detail."Hier ging iets mis | KVS"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved11 July 2008.
^"Population et ménages"(PDF) (in French). IBSA Cellule statistique – Min. Région Bruxelles-Capitale (Statistical cell – Ministry of the Brussels-Capital Region). Retrieved5 May 2007.[dead link]
^abJanssens, Rudi (2013).BRIO-taalbarometer 3: diversiteit als norm [BRIO language barometer 3: diversity as standard](PDF) (in Dutch). Brussels Informatie-, Documentatie- en Onderzoekscentrum. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 15 October 2018. Retrieved26 May 2015.
^Ernst, Gerhard (2006).Histoire des langues romanes (in French) (Manuel international sur l'histoire et l'étude linguistique des langues romanes ed.). Walter de Gruyter. p. 1166.ISBN9783110171501.Archived from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved26 April 2013.
^Von Busekist, Astrid (2002).Nationalisme contre bilinguisme: le cas belge (in French) (La Politique de Babel: du monolinguisme d'État au plurilinguisme des peuples [191-226] ed.). Éditions KARTHALA. p. 348.ISBN9782845862401.Archived from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved26 April 2013.
^"La Constitution belge (Art. 4)" (in French). theBelgian Senate. May 2007.Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved18 January 2009.La Belgique comprend quatre régions linguistiques : la région de langue française, la région de langue néerlandaise, la région bilingue de Bruxelles-Capitale et la région de langue allemande.
^Dirk Jacobs (1999).De toekomst van Brussel als meertalige en multiculturele stad. Hebt u al een partijstandpunt?in Het statuut van Brussel / Bruxelles et son statut (in Dutch). Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier. pp. 661–703.ISBN2-8044-0525-7.
^Philippe De Bruycker (1999).Le défi de l'unité bruxelloisein Het statuut van Brussel / Bruxelles et son statut (in French). Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier. pp. 465–472.ISBN2-8044-0525-7.
^"Van autochtoon naar allochtoon".De Standaard (in Dutch).Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved5 May 2007.Meer dan de helft van de Brusselse bevolking is van vreemde afkomst. In 1961 was dat slechts 7 procent. [More than half of the Brussels' population is of foreign origin. In 1961 this was only 7 percent.]
^Johan Winkler (1874)."De stad Brussel".Algemeen Nederduitsch en Friesch Dialecticon (in Dutch). Digitale Bibliotheek voor de Nederlandse Letteren. pp. 264–272.Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved1 March 2022.
^"Religious Freedom in Belgium".Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Georgetown University. Archived fromthe original on 21 June 2015. Retrieved21 June 2015.
^ab"Bericht uit het Gewisse" [Message from the Gewisse].npdata.be (in Dutch). 11 September 2008. Archived fromthe original on 21 November 2010. Retrieved9 October 2010.In België wonen 628.751 moslims(Berekend aantal), 6,0% van de bevolking. In Brussel is dit 25,5%, in Wallonië 4,0%, in Vlaanderen 3,9% [In Belgium there are 628,751 Muslims (Calculated number), 6.0% of the population. In Brussels this is 25.5%, in Wallonia 4.0%, in Flanders 3.9%.]
^van Morckhoven, Paul; André, Luc (1970).The contemporary theatre in Belgium. Brussels, B: Belgian Information and Documentation Institute. p. 73.OCLC906056246.
Brigode, Simon (1938). "Les fouilles de la collégiale Sainte-Gudule à Bruxelles : découverte de l'avant-corps occidental de l'époque romane".Annales de la Société royale belge d'archéologie de Bruxelles (in French).27. Brussels.
Buron, Thierry (2016). "Molenbeek, de sainte Gertrude au djihadisme".Conflits (in French).9. Paris.
Culot, Maurice; Hennaut, Eric; Demanet, Marie; Mierop, Caroline (1992).Le bombardement de Bruxelles par Louis XIV et la reconstruction qui s'ensuivit, 1695–1700 (in French). Brussels: AAM éditions.ISBN978-2-87143-079-7.
Culot, Maurice; Pirlot, Anne-Marie (2005).Bruxelles Art Nouveau (in French). Brussels: Archives d'Architecture Moderne.ISBN978-2-87143-126-8.
Charruadas, Paulo (2005). "La formation de Molenbeek : industrialisation et urbanisation".Les Cahiers de la fonderie (in French).33. Brussels.
Demey, Thierry (1990).Bruxelles, chronique d'une capitale en chantier (in French). Vol. I: Du voûtement de la Senne à la jonction Nord-Midi. Brussels: Paul Legrain/CFC.OCLC44643865.
Demey, Thierry (2007).Brussels, capital of Europe. S. Strange (trans.). Brussels: Badeaux.ISBN978-2-9600414-6-0.
Demey, Thierry (2009).Léopold II (1865-1909). La marque royale sur Bruxelles (in French). Brussels: Badeaux.ISBN978-2-9600414-8-4.
Dumont, Georges-Henri (1996).La Vie Quotidienne en Belgique sous la Règne de Léopold II (1856–1909) (in French) (Rev. ed.). Brussels: Éd. Le Cri.ISBN2-87106-173-4.
Eggericx, Laure (1997).Les Boulevards du Centre. Bruxelles, ville d'Art et d'Histoire (in French). Vol. 20. Brussels: Centre d'information, de Documentation et d'Etude du Patrimoine.Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved23 October 2021.
Galloy, Denise; Hayt, Franz (2006).La Belgique: des Tribus Gauloises à l'Etat Fédéral (in French) (5th ed.). Brussels: De Boeck.ISBN2-8041-5098-4.
Pirenne, Henri (1948).Histoire de Belgique (in French). Vol. VII: De la révolution de 1830 à la guerre de 1914 (2nd ed.). Brussels: Maurice Lamertin.
Riché, Pierre (1983).The Carolingians; A Family Who Forged Europe. Michael Idomir Allen (trans.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Schroeder-Gudehus, Brigitte; Rasmussen, Anne (1992).Les fastes du progrès : le guide des expositions universelles 1851–1992 (in French). Paris: Flammarion.
Slatin, Sonia (1979). "Opera and Revolution:La Muette de Portici and the Belgian Revolution of 1830 Revisited".Journal of Musicological Research.3 (3):45–62.doi:10.1080/01411897908574506.
Stubbs, John H.; Makaš, Emily G. (2011). "Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands".Architectural Conservation in Europe and the Americas. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.ISBN978-0-470-90099-4.
Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2009).A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. Santa Barbara (CA): ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-851-09667-1.
Wasseige, Manoëlle (1995).Le Quartier Royal. Bruxelles, ville d'Art et d'Histoire (in French). Vol. 15. Brussels: Éditions de la Région de Bruxelles-Capitale.Archived from the original on 25 June 2022. Retrieved13 October 2022.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg){kind=logo}
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_-_2264-0007-0.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.PNG)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_landing_at_Brussels_Airport_(1).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
