Sultanate of Brunei | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| 1363/1368–1888 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 Flag  Royal Emblem (1868–1888) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 The maximum territorial extent of the Bruneian Empire (yellow) with its vassals (light yellow) in 1521. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Status |
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| Capital |
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| Common languages | Brunei Malay,Old Malay,Old Tagalog,Kapampangan,Arabic andBornean languages | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Religion | Sunni Islam | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Demonym | Bruneian | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sultans | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1363/68–1402 | Sultan Muhammad Shah | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1425–1432 | Sharif Ali | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1485–1524 | Bolkiah | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1582–1598 | Muhammad Hassan | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1828–1852 | Omar Ali Saifuddin II | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1885–1888[2] | Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Establishment of the Sultanate | 1363/1368 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Became aBritishprotectorate | 1888 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Currency | Barter,Cowrie,Piloncitos, and laterBrunei pitis | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| This article is part of a series on the |
| History of Brunei |
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See also |
TheSultanate of Brunei (Jawi: كسلطانن بروني) or simplyBrunei (/bruːˈnaɪ/broo-NY), also known as theBruneian Empire, was aMalay sultanate centered aroundBrunei on the northern coast ofBorneo in Southeast Asia. Brunei became a sovereign state around the 15th century, when it substantially expanded after thefall of Malacca to the Portuguese,[3][4] extending throughout coastal areas of Borneo and the Philippines, before it declined in the 17th and 18th centuries.[5] It became a British protectorate in the 19th century.
The limited evidence from contemporary sources poses a challenge in understanding the history of the early Bruneian Sultanate. No local or indigenous sources exist to provide evidence for this. As a result, Chinese texts have been relied on to construct the history of early Brunei.[6]Boni in Chinese sources most likely refers toWestern Borneo, whilePoli (婆利), probably located in theAceh region inSumatra,[7] is claimed by local authorities to refer to Brunei as well.[8]
A renegade group from the kingdom ofFunan in Cambodia found themselves in Borneo after escaping theKhmer invasion, which is where Brunei's historical roots lie. In honor of its ruler, Raja Kamrun, the early Arab explorers called this new country Kamrun. This name changed throughout time to become Muja, Zabaj, and finally Brunei. The history of the area was also impacted bySrivijaya, from which rulers and their supporters fled to Brunei afterRaja Sailendra conquered it.[9] When these migrants took over Kamrun, the native population was forced to flee into the interior, which may have resulted in the rise of theMurut andBisaya peoples.[10]
The national history of Brunei alleges that Brunei is an ancient kingdom located in the Malay Archipelago, alongside other historical kingdoms such asPalembang Tua,Tarumanagara,Perlak,Pasai,Malacca, Gersik, andDemak. During theSong dynasty, a polity in western Borneo called Boni was noted as a large and powerful state, ruling over 14 regions and boasting 100 warships. The people were known for their bravery in battle, wielding swords and spears, and wearing armor made of copper for protection against enemy attacks.[11]
Rice cultivation was the main source of income for the people of Brunei, whose land was said to be extremely productive. Some also fished and reared chickens and goats. In addition to many other handicrafts, the ladies were adept at weaving fabric, creating mats, and constructing baskets. The capital of Brunei, which had around 10,000 residents, was encircled by wooden defences. Like the people's dwellings, the royal palace was covered withnipa palm leaves.[11]
In 977, a Chinese merchant ofArab descent named P'u-lu-shieh (Fairuz Shah) arrived in Brunei for trade, receiving a warm welcome from the king and the local populace. Upon his return to China, the King requested P'u-lu-shieh to escort his envoy to the Chinese Emperor. P'u-lu-shieh agreed, and the royal delegation was led by Abu Ali (Pu Ya Li), Syeikh Noh (Shih-Nu), and Qadi Kasim (Koh-shin).[11] They brought letters and gifts for the emperor, including 100turtle shells,camphor, five pieces ofagarwood, three trays ofsandalwood,raksamala wood, and sixelephant tusks. The letter included three main points: to inform the Emperor about P'u-lu-shieh’s arrival in Brunei and his assistance in repairing the damaged ship; to send envoys to the Emperor as representatives, offering gifts on behalf of the king; and to request the Emperor's assistance in notifying the Champa government to ensure the safety of Brunei's ships stranded there due to storms. Since that time, the relationship between Brunei and China became increasingly close and friendly.[12]
Known as the "Maritime Silk Road" or "spice road," Brunei's commerce networks were essential in linking it to other areas. As evidence of Brunei's early engagement inforeign affairs, King Hiang-ta of P'oni dispatched an embassy to China in 977. Brunei's historical significance is demonstrated by the fact that it was referred to by names like P'oli and P'oni during theLiang,Sui,Tang,Song, andMing dynasties. In theTemburong District in particular, the term P'oni is still used today. In addition, the family ofAwang Alak Betatar is thought to have established the old monarchy in Garang before moving toKota Batu in 1397.[10]
In the 14th century, Brunei seems to have been a subject ofJava. The Javanese manuscriptNagarakretagama, written byPrapanca in 1365, mentionedBarune as thevassal state ofMajapahit,[13] which had to make an annualtribute of 40katis ofcamphor.
After Majapahit invaded Brunei, its subject kingdoms in the Philippines which were formally under its control, rebelled against Brunei, chief of which was the former kingdom of Sulu which besieged and pillaged it.
Its (Brunei's) own empire gone, it would appear to have shrunk to its heartland by Brunei bay. It now paid an annual tribute of 40 kati of camphor to the Majapahit Emperor. But worse was to follow. 1369 marks the absolute nadir of Brunei's fortunes, for in that year its former subjects the Suluks put it to sack. So utterly helpless were the Bruneis, that they had to be rescued by the Majapahit fleet, which drove out the intruders, who departed laden with enormous booty and taking the two precious pearls.
— Robert Nicholl, "Brunei Rediscovered: A Survey of Early Times"[14]
After thefall of Malacca to the Portuguese, Portuguese merchants traded regularly with Brunei from 1530 and described the capital of Brunei as surrounded by astone wall.[3][15] During the rule ofBolkiah, the fifth sultan, the sultanate controlled the coastal areas of northwest Borneo (present-day Brunei,Sarawak andSabah) and reachedSeludong (present-day Serudong River, Sabah[16]) as well as theSulu Archipelago.[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]
In the 16th century, the Brunei's influence extended as far as theKapuas River delta inWest Kalimantan. The MalaySultanate of Sambas in West Kalimantan and theSultanate of Sulu in the southern Philippines in particular developed dynastic relations with the royal house of Brunei. The Malay sultans ofPontianak,Samarinda andBanjarmasin, treated the Sultan of Brunei as their leader. The true nature of Brunei's relationship with other Malay sultanates of coastal Borneo and theSulu Archipelago is still a subject of study, as to whether it was a vassal state, an alliance, or just a ceremonial relationship. Other regional polities also exercised their influence upon these sultanates. TheSultanate of Banjar (present-day Banjarmasin), for example, was also under the influence ofDemak in Java. The growth ofMalacca as the largest Southeast Asianentrepôt in theMaritime Silk Road led to a gradual spread of its cultural influence eastward throughoutMaritime Southeast Asia.Malay became the regionallingua franca of trade and many polities enculturated Islamic Malay customs and governance to varying degrees, including Kapampangans, Tagalogs and other coastal Philippine peoples. Brunei gained influence in Luzon after the marriage ofSalalila to the daughter of Sultan Bolkiah of Brunei and Puteri Laila Menchanai of Sulu, creating a union between the royal houses of Maynila, Brunei and Sulu. This union facilitated the spread of Islam in the coastal parts of central and southern Luzon. The Muslim rajahs of Maynila, likeRajah Matanda, for instance, had family-links with the Brunei Sultanate, as he was the grandson of Sultan Bolkiah.[25]
Bruneian influence spread elsewhere around Manila Bay, present-dayBatangas, and coastalMindoro through closer trade and political relations, with a growingoverseas Kapampangan-Tagalog population based in Brunei and beyond in Malacca in various professions as traders, sailors, shipbuilders, mercenaries, governors, and slaves.[26][27]
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The rising power of the nearbySultanate of Sulu occurred due to infighting between Bruneian nobles and the king. Brunei eventually lost its authority over theBajaus and lapsed into a collection of riverine territories ruled by semi-autonomous chiefs.[28]
By the end of 17th century, Brunei entered a period of decline brought on byinternal strife over royal succession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy.[5] Brunei lost much of its territory due to the arrival of the western powers such as theSpanish in thePhilippines, theDutch insouthern Borneo and theBritish inLabuan, Sarawak andNorth Borneo. By 1725, Brunei had many of its supply routes to the Sultanate of Sulu.[29]
In 1888, SultanHashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin appealed to the British to stop further encroachment.[30] In the same year, the British signed aprotectorate agreement with Brunei and made Brunei a British protectorate,[5] which lasted until 1984, when Brunei gained independence.[31][32]
The sultanate was divided into three traditional land systems known askerajaan (crown property),kuripan (official property) andtulin (hereditary private property).[33]
Arab travelers who explored the Malay Archipelago referred to Brunei as "Ka Selatanga," located to the east of Java and southwest ofLuzon. Other Arab explorers called it "Zabaj" or "Zabaji," indicating a land known for producing camphor. Zabaj or Zabaji is said to be situated near the Thousand Islands in the Philippines.Ahmad ibn Majid, a notable Arab navigator who sailed through the Malay Archipelago, referred to Zabaj or Zabaji as "Barni," which corresponds to Brunei. Additionally, the South China Sea, which they navigated en route to China, was also named "Laut Barni" or "Brunei Sea."[34]
The Arab explorers described Brunei's capital as a city built on water, with a hot climate which experienced tidal changes twice a day. They noted the presence ofpeacocks, monkeys, and talkingcockatoos, which sported feathers in white, red, and yellow. The region was rich in natural resources, producing camphor, gold, spices,nutmeg, and sandalwood. The Arab travelers also recognised Brunei as a significant kingdom within the Malay Archipelago, boasting a strong military presence. Its naval bases were strategically located at crucial river estuaries, commanded by a Pengiran and his followers, who were responsible for maintaining the safety and security of the people and the state.[34]
Most of Brunei's population resided around Brunei Bay, engaging in various occupations such as fishing and farming, while others became skilled sailors, brave warriors, and successful traders. According to Arab explorers, Brunei's port was safe, sheltered, and prosperous, attracting merchants from diverse backgrounds, including those from China, Java, Siam, Palembang, Kelantan, Pahang, Cambodia,Makassar,Pattani, and Suluk. During this period, the goods traded at Brunei's port included camphor, gemstones, wax, honey, pearls, gold, spices, pottery, silk, tin, rattan, and various foodstuffs. The bustling trade and the wide variety of goods exchanged at the port underscore Brunei's significance in the region's commerce and its connections with different cultures.[34]
The histories of the Liang, Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties all indicate that Brunei and China had a cordial connection. Both kingdoms' kings often dispatched envoys from their respective areas with gifts and messages. At the same time, traders also came to the ports of both kingdoms to do business.Brunei–China relations deteriorated during theYuan dynasty. Chinese rulers of the period prioritized war and territory conquest. UnderKublai Khan's leadership, a military expedition headed by General Su P'e was sent to theMalay Archipelago in 1292 AD with the goal of attacking many nations, including Brunei. But the invading army were effectively repulsed by Brunei's soldiers. Feeling embarrassed to go back home, the vanquished Chinese troops asked the King of Brunei for permission to reside in theKinabatangan valley, which is part of Sabah and is governed by Brunei. They founded a hamlet there when the King accepted their request.[12]
According to the histories of the Ming dynasty, in 1370, a Chinese Emperor's ambassador on his way to Java made a halt in Brunei. The King of Brunei was titled Mahamosa, which is taken from the Chinese pronunciation of SultanMuhammad Shah, according to this mission, which was headed by Sin Tze and Chang Ching Tze. According to Sin Tze the monarch was bold, powerful, and furious. But he also stated that Brunei's defenses were weakened because of theSuluk people's annihilation. Because of Brunei's poverty and continued tribute to Majapahit, Muhammad Shah was hesitant to follow Sin Tze's advice to seek protection from China and to deliver tribute. The Sultan eventually decided to send an embassy to China after being convinced by the envoy's logical arguments. Alongside the Chinese ambassador returning from Java in 1371, his delegation set ship for China.[35]
Under the reign ofHongwu, the relationship between Brunei and China strengthened further. In 1375, a royal prince from China namedOng Sum Ping visited Brunei and eventually married Princess Ratna Dewi, the daughter of Muhammad Shah, earning the titlePengiran Maharaja Lela. Ong's brother also marriedPengiran BendaharaPateh Berbai. In 1397, during the reign ofJiawen, an envoy from Muhammad Shah visited China along with envoys fromAnnam,Siam, Java, Palembang, andPahang. This time, the Brunei delegation was officially recognized as representing Brunei rather than P'oni, as the kingdom had relocated to Kota Batu.[35] In 1402, the reigning king was Manajekana, also known as SultanAbdul Majid. In 1403, the Sultan sent an envoy to inform the emperor of his father's death. By 1405, he dispatched another envoy to request formal recognition from the emperor, who was pleased to receive this honour. In the same year, the emperor sent an official delegation led byCheng Ho to Brunei, bringing royal seals and gifts as a gesture of goodwill.[36]
During Abdul Majid's rule, Brunei's ties with China grew stronger. On August 20, 1408,[37] the Sultan traveled to China with a retinue of 150 family members. After two months in China, he fell ill and died at the age of 28 October 1408, with his remains interred on the slopes of a hill named Shih-tzu Kang inNanking. To fulfill Sultan Abdul Majid's wishes, the Chinese emperor appointed Hsia-wang, the Sultan's son, as the King of Brunei. After spending a year in China, Hsia-wang returned to Brunei, escorted by Chinese officials led by Chong Chien. During Hsia-wang’s absence, the throne was held by his uncle, Pateh Berbai, who took the title Sultan Ahmad, as Hsia-wang was only four years old at that time. Between 1415 and 1425, relations between Brunei and China remained stable, with Brunei sending four envoys to China during those years. However, after 1425, the relationship began to deteriorate, and it was not until 1530 that Brunei sent envoys to China again, alongside delegations from Siam, Champa, and Java.[36]
An Italian explorer,Antonio Pigafetta, stopped at Brunei in July 1521 on a return trip to Spain. He recorded that the Malays had been in Brunei for a long time and had a high level of civilization. Forts were built that mounted heavy guns and were equipped with horses and trained elephants. In the house of the Sultan, there were silver candlesticks and gold spoons on the table.[38]
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