At theSultanate of Brunei's peak during the reign of SultanBolkiah (1485–1528), the state is claimed to have had control over the most of Borneo, including modern-day Sarawak andSabah, as well as theSulu archipelago and the islands off the northwestern tip of Borneo. There are also claims to its historical control over Seludong, in which Southeast Asian scholars believe the name of the location in question is actually in reference to Mount Selurong, in Indonesia,[23] or Serudong River in eastern Sabah.[24] The maritime state of Brunei was visited by the surviving crew of theMagellan Expedition in 1521, and in 1578 it fought against Spain in theCastilian War.
According to local historiography, Brunei was founded by Awang Alak Betatar, later to beSultan Muhammad Shah, reigning around AD 1400. He moved from Garang in theTemburong District[25] to theBrunei River estuary, discovering Brunei. According to legend, upon landing he exclaimed, "Baru nah!" (loosely translated as "that's it!" or "there!"), from which the name "Brunei" was derived.[26] He was the first Muslim ruler of Brunei.[27] Before the rise of theBruneian Empire under the Muslim Bolkiah dynasty, Brunei is believed to have been under Buddhist rulers.[28] It was renamedBarunai in the 14th century, possibly influenced by theSanskritvaruṇ (वरुण), meaning "seafarers".[29] The word "Borneo" is of the same origin.
In the country's full name ofNegara Brunei Darussalam, the worddarussalam (Arabic:دار السلام) means "Abode of Peace", whilenegara means "country" inMalay. A shortened version of the official Malay name, "Brunei Darussalam", has also entered common usage, particularly in official contexts, and is present in theUnited Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names geographical database,[30] as well as official ASEAN[31] and Commonwealth[32] listings.
We arrived at the island of Bornei(Brunei or Borneo), which is distant from theMaluch about two hundred miles [three hundred kilometres], and we found that it was somewhat larger than the aforesaid and much lower. The people are pagans and are men of goodwill. Their colour is whiter than that of the other sort ... in this island justice is well administered ...[33]
Areas comprising what is now Brunei participated in the Maritime Jade Road, as ascertained by archaeological research. The trading network existed for 3,000 years, between 2000 BC to 1000 AD.[34][35][36][37] The settlement known as Vijayapura was a vassal-state to the BuddhistSrivijaya empire and was thought to be located in Borneo's Northwest which flourished in the 7th Century.[38] Vijayapura itself upon earlier in its history, was a rump state of the fallen multi-ethnic: Austronesian, Austroasiatic and Indian,Funan Civilization; previously located in what is now Cambodia.[39]: 36 This alternative Srivijaya known as Vijayapura referring to Brunei, was known to Arabic sources as "Sribuza".[40]
One of the earliest Chinese records of an independent kingdom in Borneo is the 977 AD letter to the Chinese emperor from the ruler of Boni, which some scholars believe to refer to Borneo.[41] The Bruneians regained their independence from Srivijaya due to the onset of a Javanese-Sumatran war.[42] In 1225, the Chinese officialZhao Rukuo reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, and that there was great wealth in the kingdom.[43] Marco Polo suggested in his memoirs that the Great Khan or the ruler of the Mongol Empire, attempted and failed many times in invading "Great Java" which was the European name for Bruneian controlled Borneo.[44][additional citation(s) needed]
According to Wang Zhenping, in the 1300s, theYuan Dade nanhai zhi or "Yuan dynasty Dade period southern sea records" reported that Brunei conquered or administeredSarawak andSabah as well as the Philippine kingdoms ofButuan,Sulu,Ma-i (Mindoro), Malilu 麻裏蘆 (Manila),Shahuchong 沙胡重 (Siocon orZamboanga), Yachen 啞陳Oton, and 文杜陵 Wenduling (Mindanao),[45] which would regain their independence at a later date.[46]
In the 14th century, theJavanese manuscriptNagarakretagama, written byPrapanca in 1365, mentionedBarune as the constituent state of HinduMajapahit,[47] which had to make an annualtribute of 40katis ofcamphor. In 1369, Sulu which was also formerly part of Majapahit, had successfully rebelled and then attacked Boni, and had invaded the Northeast Coast of Borneo[48] and afterwards had looted the capital of its treasure and gold including sacking two sacred pearls. A fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away the Sulus, but Boni was left weaker after the attack.[49] A Chinese report from 1371 described Boni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit.[50] When the Chinese admiralZheng He visited the Brunei in the early 15th century, he founded a major trading port which included Chinese people who were actively trading with China.[51]
During the 15th century, Boni had seceded from Majapahit and then converted to Islam. Thus transforming into the independent Sultanate of Brunei. Brunei became aHashemite state when she allowed the Arab Emir of Mecca,Sharif Ali, to become her third sultan.
As customary for close affiliation and alliances in Southeast Asia, the royal family of Luzon intermarried with the ruling houses of theSultanate of Brunei.[52] Intermarriage was a common strategy for Southeast Asian states to extend their influence.[53] However, Islamic Brunei's power was not uncontested in Borneo since it had a Hindu rival in a state founded by Indians calledKutai in the south which they overpowered but didn't destroy.
Nevertheless, by the 16th century, Islam was firmly rooted in Brunei, and the country had built one of its biggest mosques. In 1578, Alonso Beltrán, a Spanish traveller, described it as being five stories tall and built on the water.[54]
Brunei briefly rose to prominence in Southeast Asia when the Portuguese occupiedMalacca and thereby forced the wealthy and powerful but displaced Muslim refugees there to relocate to nearby Sultanates such as Brunei. The Bruneian Sultan then intervened in a territorial conflict betweenHindu Tondo andMuslim Manila in the Philippines by appointing the Bruneian descendedRajah Ache of Manila as admiral of the Bruneian navy in a rivalry against Tondo and as the enforcer of Bruneian interests in the Philippines. He subsequently encountered the Magellan expedition[55] whereinAntonio Pigafetta noted that under orders from his grandfather the Sultan of Brunei, Ache had previously sacked the Buddhist city of Loue in Southwest Borneo for being faithful to the old religion and rebelling against the authority of Sultanate.[56] However,European influence gradually brought an end to Brunei'sregional power, as Brunei entered a period of decline compounded by internal strife over royal succession. In the face of these invasions by European Christian powers, theOttoman Caliphate aided the beleaguered Southeast Asian Sultanates by makingAceh aprotectorate and sending expeditions to reinforce, train and equip the localmujahideen.[57] Turks were routinely migrating to Brunei as evidenced by the complaints of Manila Oidor Melchor Davalos who in his 1585 report, say that Turks were coming to Sumatra, Borneo and Ternate every year, including defeated veterans from theBattle of Lepanto.[58]
Spaindeclared war in 1578, planning to attack and captureKota Batu, Brunei's capital at the time. This was based in part on the assistance of two Bruneiannoblemen, Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. The former had travelled toManila, then the centre of the Spanish colony. Manila itself was captured from Brunei, Christianised and made a territory of theViceroyalty of New Spain which was centered in Mexico City. Pengiran Seri Lela came to offer Brunei as atributary to Spain for help to recover the throne usurped by his brother, Saiful Rijal.[59] The Spanish agreed that if they succeeded in conquering Brunei, Pengiran Seri Lela would be appointed as the sultan, while Pengiran Seri Ratna would be the newBendahara.
In March 1578, a fresh Spanish fleet had arrived from Mexico and settled at the Philippines. They were led byDe Sande, acting asCapitán-General. He organised an expedition from Manila for Brunei, consisting of 400 Spaniards and Mexicans, 1,500Filipino natives, and 300 Borneans.[60] The campaign was one of many, which also included action inMindanao andSulu.[61][62] The racial make-up of the Christian side was diverse since it were usually made up ofMestizos,Mulattoes and Amerindians (Aztecs,Mayans andIncans) who were gathered and sent from Mexico and were led by Spanish officers who had worked together with native Filipinos in military campaigns across the Southeast Asia.[63] The Muslim side was also equally racially diverse. In addition to the native Malay warriors, the Ottomans had repeatedly sent military expeditions to nearbyAceh. The expeditions were composed mainly ofTurks,Egyptians,Swahilis,Somalis,Sindhis,Gujaratis andMalabars.[64] These expeditionary forces had also spread to other nearby Sultanates such as Brunei and had taught new fighting tactics and techniques on how to forge cannons.[65]
Eventually, the Spanish captured the capital on 16 April 1578, with the help of Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. The Sultan Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar were forced to flee to Meragang then toJerudong. In Jerudong, they made plans to chase the conquering army away from Brunei. Suffering high fatalities due to acholera ordysentery outbreak,[66][67] the Spanish decided to abandon Brunei and returned to Manila on 26 June 1578, after 72 days.[68]
Pengiran Seri Lela died in August or September 1578, probably from the same illness suffered by his Spanish allies.[citation needed] There was suspicion that the legitimist sultan could have been poisoned by the ruling sultan.[citation needed] Seri Lela's daughter, a Bruneian princess, "Putri", had left with the Spanish, she abandoned her claim to the crown and then she married a ChristianTagalog, named Agustín de Legazpi de Tondo.[69]Agustin de Legaspi along with his family and associates were soon implicated in theConspiracy of the Maharlikas, an attempt by Filipinos to link up with the Brunei Sultanate and Japanese Shogunate to expel the Spaniards from the Philippines.[70] However, upon the Spanish suppression of the conspiracy, the Bruneian descended aristocracy of precolonial Manila were exiled toGuerrero, Mexico which consequently later became a center of theMexican war of independence against Spain.[71][72]
The local Brunei accounts[73] of the Castilian War differ greatly from the generally accepted view of events. What was called the Castilian War was seen as a heroic episode, with the Spaniards being driven out byBendahara Sakam, purportedly a brother of the ruling sultan, and a thousand native warriors. Most historians consider this to be afolk-hero account, which probably developed decades or centuries after.[74]
Brunei eventually descended into anarchy. The country suffered acivil war from 1660 to 1673.
The British have intervened in the affairs of Brunei on several occasions. Britain attacked Brunei in July 1846 due to internal conflicts over who was the rightful Sultan.[75]
In the 1880s, the decline of theBruneian Empire continued. The sultan granted land (now Sarawak) toJames Brooke, who had helped him quell a rebellion, and allowed him to establish theRaj of Sarawak. Over time, Brooke and his nephews (who succeeded him) leased or annexed more land. Brunei lost much of its territory to him and his dynasty, known as theWhite Rajahs.
SultanHashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin appealed to the British to stop further encroachment by the Brookes.[76] TheProtectorate Agreement was negotiated bySir Hugh Low and signed into effect on 17 September 1888. The treaty said that the sultan "could not cede or lease any territory to foreign powers without British consent"; it provided Britain effective control over Brunei's external affairs, making it aBritish protected state (which continued until 1984).[77][78] But, when the Raj of Sarawak annexed Brunei'sPandaruan District in 1890,[79] the British did not take any action to stop it. They did not regard either Brunei or the Raj of Sarawak as 'foreign' (per the Treaty of Protection). This final annexation by Sarawak left Brunei with its current small land mass and separation into two parts.[80]
The British Foreign Office sent ConsulMalcolm Stewart Hannibal McArthur to assess Brunei and make recommendations on future British foreign policy in the region.[81] McArthur produced hisReport On Brunei in 1904 where he recommended the implementation of theMalayan British Residency system and the continued protection of Brunei.[82]British residents were introduced in Brunei under the Supplementary Protectorate Agreement in 1906.[83][84] The residents were to advise the sultan on all matters of administration. Over time, the resident assumed more executive control than the sultan. The residential system ended in 1959.[85]
Petroleum was discovered in 1929 after several fruitless attempts.[86] Two men, F. F. Marriot and T. G. Cochrane, smelled oil near theSeria river in late 1926.[87] They informed ageophysicist, who conducted a survey there. In 1927, gas seepages were reported in the area. Seria Well Number One (S-1) was drilled on 12 July 1928. Oil was struck at 297 metres (974 ft) on 5 April 1929. Seria Well Number 2 was drilled on 19 August 1929, and, as of 2009[update], continues to produce oil.[88] Oil production was increased considerably in the 1930s with the development of more oil fields. In 1940, oil production was at more than six million barrels.[88] The British Malayan Petroleum Company (nowBrunei Shell Petroleum Company) was formed on 22 July 1922.[89] The first offshore well was drilled in 1957.[90] Oil and natural gas have been the basis of Brunei's development and wealth since the late 20th century.
Once the Japanese occupied Brunei, they made an agreement withSultan Ahmad Tajuddin over governing the country. Inche Ibrahim (known later as Pehin Datu Perdana Menteri Dato Laila Utama Awang Haji Ibrahim), a former Secretary to the British Resident, Ernest Edgar Pengilly, was appointedchief administrative officer under the Japanese Governor. The Japanese had proposed that Pengilly retain his position under their administration, but he declined. Both he and other British nationals still in Brunei were interned by the Japanese atBatu Lintang camp in Sarawak. While the British officials were under Japanese guard, Ibrahim made a point of personally shaking each one by the hand and wishing him well.[93][94]
The Sultan retained his throne and was given a pension and honours by the Japanese. During the later part of the occupation, he resided at Tantuya,Limbang and had little to do with the Japanese. Most of the Malay government officers were retained by the Japanese. Brunei's administration was reorganised into five prefectures, which included BritishNorth Borneo. The Prefectures includedBaram, Labuan,Lawas, andLimbang. Ibrahim hid numerous significant government documents from the Japanese during the occupation. Pengiran Yusuf (later YAM Pengiran Setia Negara PengiranHaji Mohd Yusuf), along with other Bruneians, was sent to Japan for training. Although in the area the day of theatomic bombing of Hiroshima, Yusuf survived.[95]
The British had anticipated a Japanese attack, but lacked the resources to defend the area because of their engagement in the war in Europe. The troops from the Punjab Regiment filled in theSeria oilfield oilwells with concrete in September 1941 to deny the Japanese their use. The remaining equipment and installations were destroyed when theJapanese invaded Malaya. By the end of the war, 16 wells atMiri and Seria had been restarted, with production reaching about half the pre-war level. Coal production atMuara was also recommenced, but with little success.[91]
During the occupation, the Japanese had their language taught in schools, and Government officers were required to learn Japanese. The local currency was replaced by what was to become known asduit pisang (banana money). From 1943 hyper-inflation destroyed the currency's value and, at the end of the war, this currency was worthless. Allied attacks on shipping eventually caused trade to cease. Food and medicine fell into short supply, and the population suffered from famine and disease.[91]
Theairport runway was constructed by the Japanese during the occupation, and in 1943 Japanese naval units were based inBrunei Bay and Labuan. The naval base was destroyed by Allied bombing, but the airport runway survived. The facility was developed as a public airport. In 1944 the Allies began a bombing campaign against the occupying Japanese, which destroyed much of the town and Kuala Belait, but missedKampong Ayer.[96]
On 10 June 1945, theAustralian 9th Division landed at Muara underOperation Oboe Six to recapture Borneo from the Japanese. They were supported by American air and naval units. Brunei town was bombed extensively and recaptured after three days of heavy fighting. Many buildings were destroyed, including the Mosque. The Japanese forces in Brunei, Borneo, and Sarawak, under Lieutenant-General Masao Baba, formally surrendered at Labuan on 10 September 1945. The British Military Administration took over from the Japanese and remained until July 1946.[97]
AfterWorld War II, a new government was formed in Brunei under theBritish Military Administration (BMA). It consisted mainly of Australian officers and servicemen.[98] The administration of Brunei was passed to the Civil Administration on 6 July 1945. The Brunei State Council was also revived that year.[99] The BMA was tasked to revive the Bruneian economy, which was extensively damaged by the Japanese during their occupation. They also had to put out the fires on the wells of Seria, which had been set by the Japanese prior to their defeat.[99]
Before 1941, the Governor of the Straits Settlements, based in Singapore, was responsible for the duties of British High Commissioner for Brunei,Sarawak, andNorth Borneo (nowSabah).[100] The firstBritish High Commissioner for Brunei was the Governor of Sarawak, Sir Charles Ardon Clarke. TheBarisan Pemuda ("Youth Front"; abbreviated as BARIP) was the first political party to be formed in Brunei, on 12 April 1946. The party intended to "preserve the sovereignty of the Sultan and the country, and to defend the rights of theMalays".[101] BARIP also contributed to the composition of the country's national anthem. The party was dissolved in 1948 due to inactivity.
In 1959, a new constitution was written declaring Brunei a self-governing state, while its foreign affairs, security, and defence remained the responsibility of the United Kingdom.[102] A smallrebellion erupted against the monarchy in 1962, which was suppressed with help of the UK.[103] Known as theBrunei Revolt, the rebellion contributed to the Sultan's decision to opt out of joining the emerging state now called Malaysia under the umbrella ofNorth Borneo Federation.[102]
Brunei gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984.[102] The official National Day, which celebrates the country's independence, is held by tradition on 23 February.[104]
In July 1953, SultanOmar Ali Saifuddien III formed a seven-member committee namedTujuh Serangkai, to determine the citizens' views regarding a written constitution for Brunei. In May 1954, the Sultan, Resident and High Commissioner met to discuss the findings of the committee. They agreed to authorise the drafting of a constitution. In March 1959, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III led a delegation to London to discuss the proposed Constitution.[105] The British delegation was led by SirAlan Lennox-Boyd, Secretary of State for the Colonies. The British Government later accepted the draft constitution.
On 29 September 1959, the Constitution Agreement was signed inBrunei Town. The agreement was signed by Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III and Sir Robert Scott, the Commissioner-General for Southeast Asia.It included the following provisions:[83]
The Sultan was made the Supreme Head of State.
Brunei was responsible for its internal administration.
The British Government was responsible for foreign and defence affairs only.
The post of Resident was abolished and replaced by a British High Commissioner.
A series of National Development Plans was initiated by the 28th Sultan of Brunei,Omar Ali Saifuddien III.
The first was introduced in 1953.[107] A total sum of B$100 million was approved by the Brunei State Council for the plan. E.R. Bevington, from the Colonial Office inFiji, was appointed to implement it.[108] A US$14 million Gas Plant was built under the plan. In 1954, survey and exploration work were undertaken by the Brunei Shell Petroleum on both offshore and onshore fields. By 1956, production reached 114,700bpd.
The plan also aided the development of public education. By 1958, expenditure on education totalled at $4 million.[108] Communications were improved, as new roads were built and reconstruction atBerakas Airport was completed in 1954.[109]
The second National Development Plan was launched in 1962.[109] A major oil and gas field was discovered in 1963. Developments in the oil and gas sector have continued, and oil production has steadily increased since then.[110] The plan also promoted the production of meat and eggs for consumption by citizens. The fishing industry increased its output by 25% throughout the course of the plan. Thedeepwater port atMuara was also constructed during this period. Power requirements were met, and studies were made to provide electricity to rural areas.[110] Efforts were made to eradicatemalaria, an endemic disease in the region, with the help of theWorld Health Organization. Malaria cases were reduced from 300 cases in 1953 to only 66 cases in 1959.[111] The death rate was reduced from 20 per thousand in 1947 to 11.3 per thousand in 1953.[111] Infectious disease has been prevented by public sanitation and improvement of drainage, and the provision of piped pure water to the population.[111]
On 14 November 1971, SultanHassanal Bolkiah left for London to discuss matters regarding the amendments to the 1959 constitution. A new agreement was signed on 23 November 1971 with the British representative beingAnthony Royle.[112]
Under this agreement, the following terms were agreed upon:
Brunei was granted full internal self-government
The UK would still be responsible for external affairs and defence.
Brunei and the UK agreed to share the responsibility for security and defence.
This agreement also causedGurkha units to be deployed in Brunei, where they remain up to this day.
On 7 January 1979, another treaty was signed between Brunei and the United Kingdom. It was signed with Lord Goronwy-Roberts being the representative of the UK. This agreement granted Brunei to take over international responsibilities as an independent nation. Britain agreed to assist Brunei in diplomatic matters. In May 1983, it was announced by the UK that the date of independence of Brunei would be 1 January 1984.[113]
On 31 December 1983, a mass gathering was held on main mosques on all four of the districts of the country and at midnight, on 1 January 1984, the Proclamation of Independence was read by Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah. The sultan subsequently assumed the title "His Majesty", rather than the previous "His Royal Highness".[114] Brunei wasadmitted to the United Nations on 22 September 1984, becoming the organisation's 159th member.[115]
In October 2013, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah announced his intention to imposePenal Code fromSharia on the country's Muslims, which make up roughly two-thirds of the country's population.[116] This would be implemented in three phases, culminating in 2016, and making Brunei the first and only country in East Asia to introduce Sharia into its penal code, excluding the subnational Indonesian special territory ofAceh.[117] The move attracted international criticism,[118] the United Nations expressing "deep concern".[119]
Brunei is aSoutheast Asian country consisting of two unconnected parts with a total area of 5,765 square kilometres (2,226 sq mi) on the island ofBorneo. It has 161 kilometres (100 mi) of coastline next to theSouth China Sea, and it shares a 381 km (237 mi)border with Malaysia. It has 500 square kilometres (193 sq mi) of territorial waters, and a 200-nautical-mile (370 km; 230 mi)exclusive economic zone.[77]
About 97% of the population lives in the larger western part (Belait,Tutong, andBrunei-Muara), while only about 10,000 people live in the mountainous eastern part (Temburong District). The total population of Brunei is approximately 408,000 as of July 2010[update], of which around 150,000 live in the capitalBandar Seri Begawan.[120] Other major towns are the port town ofMuara, the oil-producing town ofSeria and its neighbouring town,Kuala Belait. In Belait District, thePanaga area is home to large numbers of Europeans expatriates, due toRoyal Dutch Shell and British Army housing, and several recreational facilities are located there.[121]
Most of Brunei is within theBorneo lowland rain forests ecoregion, which covers most of the island. Areas ofmountain rain forests are located inland.[122] In Bruneiforest cover is around 72% of the total land area, equivalent to 380,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 413,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 374,740 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 5,260 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 69% was reported to beprimary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 5% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership.[123][124]
Brunei's political system is governed by the constitution and the national tradition of the Malay Islamic Monarchy (Melayu Islam Beraja; MIB). The three components of MIB cover Malay culture, Islamic religion, and the political framework under the monarchy.[127] It has a legal system based onEnglish common law, although Islamic law (sharia) supersedes this in some cases.[77] Bruneihas a parliament but there are no elections; the last election was held in1962.[128]
Brunei's Sultan and Foreign MinisterHassanal Bolkiah meets with U.S. PresidentBarack Obama, 18 November 2015.Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah with Indonesian PresidentJoko Widodo, 6 October 2017
Until 1979, Brunei's foreign relations were managed by theUK government. After that, they were handled by the Brunei Diplomatic Service. After independence in 1984, this Service was upgraded to ministerial level and is now known as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[130]
Officially, Brunei's foreign policy is as follows:[131]
Mutual respect of others' territorial sovereignty, integrity and independence;
The maintenance of friendly relations among nations;
Non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries; and
The maintenance and the promotion of peace, security and stability in the region.
With its traditional ties with theUnited Kingdom, Brunei became the 49th member of theCommonwealth immediately on the day of its independence on 1 January 1984.[132] As one of its first initiatives toward improved regional relations, Brunei joinedASEAN on 7 January 1984, becoming the sixth member. To achieve recognition of its sovereignty and independence, it joined theUnited Nations as a full member on 21 September of that same year.[133]
After its accession to theAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1989, Brunei hosted the APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting in November 2000 and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 2002.[135] Brunei became a founding member of theWorld Trade Organization (WTO) on 1 January 1995,[136] and is a major player inBIMP-EAGA, which was formed during the Inaugural Ministers' Meeting inDavao, Philippines, on 24 March 1994.[137]
Brunei shares a close relationship withSingapore and thePhilippines. In April 2009, Brunei and thePhilippines signed aMemorandum of Understanding (MOU) that seeks to strengthen the bilateral cooperation of the two countries in the fields of agriculture and farm-related trade and investments.[138]
Brunei is one of many nations to lay claim to some of the disputedSpratly Islands.[139] The status ofLimbang as part ofSarawak has been disputed by Brunei since the area was first annexed in 1890.[139] The issue was reportedly settled in 2009, with Brunei agreeing to accept the border in exchange forMalaysia giving up claims to oil fields in Bruneian waters.[140] The Brunei government denies this and says that their claim on Limbang was never dropped.[141][142]
Brunei was the chair for ASEAN in 2013.[143] It also hosted the ASEAN summit on that same year.[144]
Brunei maintains three infantry battalions stationed around the country.[102] TheBrunei navy has several "Ijtihad"-class patrol boats purchased from a German manufacturer. The United Kingdom also maintains a base inSeria, the centre of the oil industry in Brunei. AGurkha battalion of 1,500 personnel is stationed there.[102] United Kingdom military personnel are stationed there under a defence agreement signed between the two countries.[102]
ABell 212 operated by the air force crashed inKuala Belait on 20 July 2012 with the loss of 12 of the 14 crew on board. The cause of the accident has yet to be ascertained.[145] The crash is the worst aviation incident in the history of Brunei.
Brunei's Legislative Council proposed an increase of the defence budget for the 2016–17 fiscal year of about five per cent to 564 million Brunei dollars ($408 million). This amounts to about ten per cent of the state's total national yearly expenditure and represents around 2.5 per cent of GDP.[148]
Brunei is divided into fourdistricts (daerah), namelyBrunei-Muara,Belait,Tutong andTemburong. Brunei-Muara District is the smallest yet the most populous and home to the country's capital, Bandar Seri Begawan. Belait is the birthplace and centre of the country's oil and gas industry. Temburong is anexclave and is separated from the rest of the country by theBrunei Bay and Malaysianstate ofSarawak. Tutong is home toTasek Merimbun, the country's largest natural lake.
Each district is divided into severalmukims. Altogether, there are 39 mukims in Brunei. Each mukim encompasses severalvillages (kampung orkampong).
Bandar Seri Begawan and towns in the country (exceptMuara andBangar) are administered asMunicipal Board areas (kawasan Lembaga Bandaran). Each municipal area may constitute villages or mukims, partially or as a whole. Bandar Seri Begawan and a few of the towns also function as the capitals of the districts where they are located.
A district and its constituent mukims and villages are administered by a District Office (Jabatan Daerah). Meanwhile, municipal areas are governed by Municipal Departments (Jabatan Bandaran). Both District Offices and Municipal Departments are government departments under theMinistry of Home Affairs.
Brunei has numerous courts in its judicial branch. The highest court, though subject in civil cases to the appellate jurisdiction of theJudicial Committee of the Privy Council,[149] is the Supreme Court, which consists of the Court of Appeal and High Court. Both of these have a chief justice and two judges.[77]
Headscarves calledtudong are compulsory for Brunei's Muslim schoolgirls.
A 2010U.S. Department of State report stated that discrimination against women is a problem in Brunei.[150] The law prohibits sexual harassment and stipulates that whoever assaults or uses criminal force, intending thereby to outrage or knowing it is likely to outrage the modesty of a person, shall be punished with imprisonment for as much as five years andcaning. The law stipulates imprisonment of up to 30 years, and caning with not fewer than 12 strokes for rape. The law does not criminalisespousal rape; it explicitly states that sexual intercourse by a man with his wife, as long as she is not under 13 years of age, is not rape. Protections against sexual assault by a spouse are provided under the amended Islamic Family Law Order 2010 and Married Women Act Order 2010. The penalty for breaching a protection order is a fine not exceeding BN$2,000 or imprisonment not exceeding six months. By law, sexual intercourse with a female under 14 years of age constitutes rape and is punishable by imprisonment for not less than eight years and not more than 30 years and not less than 12 strokes of the cane. The intent of the law is to protect girls from exploitation through prostitution and "other immoral purposes", including pornography.[150]
Bruneian citizenship is derived through parents' nationality rather thanjus soli. Parents with stateless status are required to apply for a special pass for a child born in the country. Failure to register a child may make it difficult to enroll the child in school.
Male and female homosexuality isillegal in Brunei. Sexual relations between men are punishable by death or whipping; sex between women is punishable by caning or imprisonment.
In May 2019, the Brunei government extended its existing moratorium on the death penalty to the Sharia criminal code as well that made homosexual acts punishable with death by stoning.[151]
In 2019, Brunei announced that it would no longer be implementing the second phase of its controversial sharia penal code. The code, which was first introduced in 2014, included a range of punishments for crimes such as theft, drug offences, and same-sex relationships, including amputation and death by stoning.
The decision to halt the implementation of the second phase of the code came after significant international backlash and pressure from countries and human rights organisations, who criticised the harsh punishments as inhumane and a violation of human rights.
The government of Brunei stated that the decision was made to maintain peace and stability in the country, and to avoid any negative impact on the economy and reputation of the country. The Sultan of Brunei, Hassanal Bolkiah, also issued a statement saying that the country would continue to "strengthen and improve" its legal system in line with international norms and best practices.
The first phase of the sharia penal code, which includes fines and imprisonment for offences such as failure to attend Friday prayers and consuming alcohol, remains in place.
In The Laws of Brunei, the right of non-Muslims to practice their faith is guaranteed by the1959 Constitution. However, celebrations and prayers must be confined to places of worship and private residences.[152] Upon adopting Sharia Penal Code, the Ministry of Religious Affairs banned Christmas decorations in public places, but did not forbid celebration of Christmas in places of worship and private premises.[153]On 25 December 2015, 4,000 out of 18,000 estimated local Catholics attended the mass of Christmas Day and Christmas Eve.[152] In 2015, the then-head of the Catholic Church in Brunei toldThe Brunei Times, "To be quite honest there has been no change for us this year; no new restrictions have been laid down, although we fully respect and adhere to the existing regulations that our celebrations and worship be [confined] to the compounds of the church and private residences".[152]
Brunei's revised penal code came into force in phases, commencing on 22 April 2014 with offences punishable by fines or imprisonment.[154][155] The complete code, due for final implementation later,[when?] stipulated the death penalty for numerous offences (both violent and non-violent), such as insult or defamation ofMuhammad, insulting any verses of the Quran and Hadith,blasphemy, declaring oneself a prophet or non-Muslim, robbery, rape, adultery, sodomy, extramarital sexual relations for Muslims, and murder. Stoning to death was the specified "method of execution for crimes of a sexual nature". Rupert Colville, spokesperson for theOffice of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) declared that, "Application of the death penalty for such a broad range of offences contravenes international law."[156]
Brunei has retained most of its forests, compared to its neighbours that share the island ofBorneo. There is a public campaign calling to protectpangolins which are considered a threatened treasure in Brunei.[158]
BIMP-EAGA meeting in the office of Brunei Prime Minister on 25 April 2013. From left: Brunei Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah, Indonesian PresidentSusilo Bambang Yudhoyono, Malaysian Representative and Filipino PresidentBenigno Aquino III. Brunei is part of the BIMP-EAGA, a subregional economic co-operation initiative in Southeast Asia.
Brunei has the second-highestHuman Development Index among theSoutheast Asian nations, afterSingapore.[159][160]Crude oil and natural gas production account for about 90% of its GDP.[102] About 167,000 barrels (26,600 m3) of oil are produced every day, making Brunei the fourth-largest producer of oil in Southeast Asia.[102] It also produces approximately 25.3 million cubic metres (890 million cubic feet) ofliquified natural gas per day, making Brunei the ninth-largest gas exporter in the world.[102]Forbes also ranks Brunei as the fifth-richest nation out of 182, based on its petroleum and natural gas fields.[161] Brunei was ranked 88th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[162]
Substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. Most of these investments are made by the Brunei Investment Agency, an arm of the Ministry of Finance.[102] The government provides for all medical services,[163] and subsidises rice[164] and housing.[102]
Brunei depends heavily on imports such as agricultural products (e.g.rice,food products,livestock, etc.),[165] vehicles andelectrical products from other countries.[166] Brunei imports 60% of its food; of that amount, around 75% come from otherASEAN countries.[165]
Brunei's leaders are concerned that increasing integration in the world economy will undermine internalsocial cohesion and have therefore pursued an isolationist policy. However, it has become a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. Brunei's leaders plan to upgrade thelabour force, reduce unemployment, which was at 6.9% in 2014;[167] strengthen the banking and tourism sectors, and, in general, broaden the economic base.[168] A long-term development plan aims to diversify growth.[169]
The government of Brunei has also promoted food self-sufficiency, especially in rice. Brunei renamed its Brunei Darussalam Rice 1 as Laila Rice during the launch of the "Padi Planting Towards Achieving Self-Sufficiency of Rice Production in Brunei Darussalam" ceremony at the Wasan padi fields in April 2009.[170] In August 2009, the Royal Family reaped the first few Laila padi stalks, after years of attempts to boost local rice production, a goal first articulated about half a century ago.[171] In July 2009 Brunei launched its nationalhalal branding scheme, Brunei Halal, with a goal to export to foreign markets.[172]
In 2020, Brunei's electricity production was largely based on fossil fuels; renewable energy accounted for less than 1% of produced electricity in the country.[173]
As of 2019, the country's road network constituted a total length of 3,713.57 kilometres (2,307.51 mi), out of which86.8% werepaved.[174] The 135-kilometre (84 mi) highway fromMuara Town toKuala Belait is adual carriageway.[127]
Brunei is accessible by air, sea, and land transport.Brunei International Airport is the main entry point to the country.Royal Brunei Airlines[175] is the national carrier. There is another airfield, theAnduki Airfield, located inSeria. The ferry terminal at Muara services regular connections toLabuan (Malaysia). Speedboats provide passenger and goods transportation to the Temburong district.[176] The main highway running across Brunei is the Tutong-Muara Highway. The country's road network is well developed. Brunei has one main sea port located at Muara.[102]
The airport in Brunei is currently being extensively upgraded.[177] Changi Airport International is the consultant working on this modernisation, which planned cost is currently $150 million.[178][179] This project is slated to add 14,000 square metres (150,000 sq ft) of new floorspace and includes a new terminal and arrival hall.[180] With the completion of this project, the annual passenger capacity of the airport is expected to double from 1.5 to 3 million.[178]
With one private car for every 2.09 persons, Brunei has one of the highest car ownership rates in the world. This has been attributed to the absence of a comprehensive transport system, low import tax, and low unleaded petrol price of B$0.53 per litre.[127]
A new 30-kilometre (19 mi) roadwayconnecting the Muara and Temburong districts of opened to traffic on 17 March 2020.[181] One hundred and forty kilometres (87 miles) of this roadway would be crossing theBrunei Bay.[182] The bridge cost is $1.6 billion.[183]
The population of Brunei in 2021 was 445,373,[185][186] of which 76% live in urban areas. The rate of urbanisation is estimated at 2.13% per year from 2010 to 2015. The average life expectancy is 77.7 years.[187] In 2014, 65.7% of the population wereMalay, 10.3% areChinese, 3.4% are indigenous, with 20.6% smaller groups making up the rest.[188] There is a relatively largeexpatriate community.[189]Most expats come from non-Muslim countries such asAustralia,United Kingdom,South Korea,Japan, thePhilippines,Thailand,Cambodia,Vietnam andIndia.
Others: indigenous beliefs and non-religious, Atheist or Agnostic 21,473 (4.90%)
Islam is the official religion of Brunei,[77] specifically that of theSunni denomination and theShafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence. More than 82% of the population, including the majority ofBruneian Malays andKedayans identify asMuslim. Other faiths practised areChristianity (6.7%) andBuddhism (6.3%, mainly by the Chinese).[6]Freethinkers, mostly Chinese, form about 2% of the population. Although most of them practise some form of religion with elements of Buddhism,Confucianism, andTaoism, they prefer to present themselves as having practised no religion officially, hence labelled asatheists in official censuses.[citation needed] Followers of indigenous religions are about 2% of the population.[190]
The principal spoken language isMelayu Brunei (Brunei Malay). Brunei Malay is rather divergent from standard Malay and the rest of the Malay dialects, being about 84% cognate with standard Malay,[193] and is mostly mutually intelligible with it.[194]
English is widely used as a business and official language and it is spoken by a majority of the population in Brunei. English is used in business as aworking language and as the language of instruction from primary to tertiary education.[195][196][197][198]
Arabic is the religious language of Muslims and is taught in schools, particularly religious schools, and also in institutes of higher learning. As of 2004, there are six Arabic schools and one religious teachers' college in Brunei. A majority of Brunei's Muslim population has had some form of formal or informal education in the reading, writing and pronunciation of the Arabic language as part of their religious education.
The culture of Brunei is predominantlyMalay (reflecting its ethnicity), with heavy influences fromIslam, but is seen as much more conservative thanIndonesia andMalaysia.[199] Influences to Bruneian culture come from the Malay cultures of theMalay Archipelago. Four periods of cultural influence have occurred:animist,Hindu, Islamic, andWestern. Islam had a very strong influence, and was adopted as Brunei's ideology and philosophy.[200]
As aSharia country, the sale and public consumption of alcohol is banned.[201] Non-Muslims are allowed to bring in a limited amount of alcohol from their point of embarkation overseas for their own private consumption.[127]
Media in Brunei are said to be pro-government; press criticism of the government and monarchy is rare. The country ranks "Not Free" in media byFreedom House.[202] Nonetheless, the press is not overtly hostile toward alternative viewpoints and is not restricted to publishing only articles regarding the government. The government allowed a printing and publishing company, Brunei Press PLC, to form in 1953. The company continues to print the English dailyBorneo Bulletin. This paper began as a weeklycommunity paper and became a daily in 1990[127] Apart from TheBorneo Bulletin, there is also theMedia Permata and Pelita Brunei, the local Malay newspapers which are circulated daily.The Brunei Times is another English independent newspaper published in Brunei since 2006.[203]
The Brunei government, through state broadcasterRadio Television Brunei (RTB), owns and operates three television channels with the introduction of digital TV using DVB-T (RTB Perdana, RTB Aneka and RTB Sukmaindera) and five radio stations (National FM, Pilihan FM, Nur Islam FM, Harmony FM and Pelangi FM). A private company has made cable television available (Astro-Kristal) as well as one private radio station, Kristal FM.[127]It also has an online campus radio station,UBD FM, that streams from its first university,Universiti Brunei Darussalam.[204]
^InMalay, the official name of Brunei isNegara Brunei Darussalam, literal meaning "Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace". However, in English, the official name of the country is always written asBrunei Darussalam.[19][20]
^"Brunei".Ethnologue (Free All). Ethnologue. 19 February 1999.Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved30 December 2013.
^McLellan, J., Noor Azam Haji-Othman, & Deterding, D. (2016). The Language Situation in Brunei Darussalam. In Noor Azam Haji-Othman., J. McLellan & D. Deterding (Eds.),The use and status of language in Brunei Darussalam: A kingdom of unexpected linguistic diversity (pp. 9–16). Singapore: Springer.
^"Brunei Darussalam"(PDF) (Human Rights Council). United Nations: 4.Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved27 August 2022.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help)
^Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2000), "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan", Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 20: 153–158, doi:10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751
^Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan's relations with the Philippines date back millennia, so it's a mystery that it's not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times.
^Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.
^Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.
^"Naskah Nagarakretagama" (in Indonesian). Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia. Archived fromthe original on 23 May 2017. Retrieved13 October 2014.
^Junker, Laura Lee (1998). "Integrating History and Archaeology in the Study of Contact Period Philippine Chiefdoms".International Journal of Historical Archaeology.2 (4):291–320.doi:10.1023/A:1022611908759.S2CID141415414.
^de Aganduru Moriz, Rodrigo (1882). Historia general de las Islas Occidentales a la Asia adyacentes, llamadas Philipinas. Colección de Documentos inéditos para la historia de España, v.78–79. Madrid: Impr. de Miguel Ginesta.
^Tom Harrisson, Brunei's Two (or More) Capitals, Brunei Museum Journal, Vol. 3, No. 4 (1976), p. 77 sq.
^Kayadibi, Saim. "Ottoman Connections to the Malay World: Islam, Law and Society", (Kuala Lumpur: The Other Press, 2011)
^Melchor Davalos to the King, Manila 20 June 1585, in Lewis Hanke, Cuerpo de Documentos del Siglo XVI sobre los derechos de España en las Indias y las Filipinas (Mexico 1977), pp 72, 75.
^Letter from Fajardo to Felipe III From Manila, August 15 1620. (From the Spanish Archives of the Indies)Archived 4 February 2018 at theWayback Machine("The infantry does not amount to two hundred men, in three companies. If these men were that number, and Spaniards, it would not be so bad; but, although I have not seen them, because they have not yet arrived here, I am told that they are, as at other times, for the most part boys, mestizos, and mulattoes, with some Indians (Native Americans). There is no little cause for regret in the great sums that reënforcements of such men waste for, and cost, your Majesty. I cannot see what betterment there will be until your Majesty shall provide it, since I do not think, that more can be done in Nueva Spaña, although the viceroy must be endeavoring to do so, as he is ordered.")
^Martinez, Manuel F. Assassinations & conspiracies : from Rajah Humabon to Imelda Marcos. Manila: Anvil Publishing, 2002.
^"Estado de Guerrero Historia" [State of Guerrero History].Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México (in Spanish). Mexico: Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal. 2005. Archived fromthe original on 6 March 2012. Retrieved24 June 2010.
^"La Riqueza Histórica de Guerrero" [The Historical Richness of Guerrero] (in Spanish). Guerrero, Mexico: Government of Guerrero. Archived fromthe original on 3 November 2010. Retrieved24 June 2010.
^Hussainmiya, B. A. (2006). "Appendix 3: British-Brunei (Protectorate) Treaty, 17 September 1888".Brunei Revival of 1906: A Popular HistoryArchived 7 September 2021 at theWayback Machine (PDF). Bandar Seri Begawan: Brunei Press Sdn Bhd. p. 77. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
^Hussainmiya, B. A. (2006). "Appendix 4: British-Brunei (Protectorate) Document, 3 December 1905 and 2 January 1906: (Supplementary) Agreement between His Majesty's Government and the Sultan of Brunei Providing for More Effectual British Protection over the State of Brunei".Brunei Revival of 1906: A Popular History(PDF). Bandar Seri Begawan: Brunei Press Sdn Bhd. p. 77.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved25 April 2022.His Highness will receive a British Officer, to be styled Resident, and will provide a suitable residence for him. The Resident will be the Agent and Representative of His Britannic Majesty's Government under the High Commissioner for the British Protectorates in Borneo, and his advice must be taken and acted upon on all questions in Brunei
^"The Japanese Interregnum...," Graham Saunders,A history of Brunei, Edition 2, illustrated, reprint, Routledge, 2002, p. 129,ISBN070071698X,978-0700716982
^R. H. W. Reece. The Name of Brooke: The End of White Rajah Rule in Sarawak. p.185. Oxford University Press. 1982
^"Japanese occupation",Historical Dictionary of Brunei Darussalam, Jatswan S. Sidhu, Edition 2, illustrated, Scarecrow Press, 2009, p. 115,ISBN0810870789,978-0810870789
^Brunei Healthcare Info."Brunei Healthcare". Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved23 December 2011.
^Bandar Seri Begawan (16 May 2008)."Subsidy on rice, sugar to stay". Brunei Times via Chinese Embassy.Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved23 December 2011.
^Ubaidillah Masli, Goh De No and Faez Hani Brunei-Muapa (28 April 2009)."'Laila Rice' to Brunei's rescue". Bt.com.bn. Archived fromthe original on 16 January 2010. Retrieved30 December 2009.
^Ubaidillah Masli, Deno Goh and Faez Hani Brunei-Muapa (4 August 2009)."HM inaugurates Laila harvest". Bt.com.bn. Archived fromthe original on 16 January 2010. Retrieved30 December 2009.
^abP.W. Martin and G. Poedjosoedarmo (1996). An overview of the language situation in Brunei Darussalam. In P.W. Martin, C. Ozog & G. Poedjosoedarmo (Eds.),Language use & language change in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 1–23). Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies. p. 7.
^A.C.K. Ozog (1996). The unplanned use of English: The case of Brunei Darussalam. In P.W. Martin, C. Ozog & G. Poedjosoedarmo (Eds.),Language use & language change in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 156–66). Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
^K. Dunseath (1996). Aspects of language maintenance and language shift among the Chinese community in Brunei. In P.W. Martin, C. Ozog & G. Poedjosoedarmo (Eds.),Language use & language change in Brunei Darussalam (pp. 280–301). Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International StudiesISBN0896801934.
^For a discussion of religious freedom, seeBruneiArchived 28 November 2019 at theWayback Machine. International Religious Freedom Report 2006, United States Department of State.
United States War Dept (1903).Annual reports, Volume 3 (Report). Government Printing Office.Archived from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved20 June 2015.
Oxford Business Group (2013).The Report: Brunei Darussalam 2013. Oxford Business Group.ISBN978-1-907065-78-1.{{cite book}}:|last= has generic name (help)
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