Broadcasting in the United States began with experiments withwireless transmission during the 19th century, with varying degrees of success. These transmissions were initially byradio hobbyists fascinated with the technology. Once techniques were perfected, radio became a necessity for military and commercial users alike. Eventually,broadcasting would come to have a major impact throughout the country. Growth divided television broadcasting into several genres, such as fiction, news, sports, and reality television.Cable television provided more channels, especially for entertainment. By the late 20th century radio (sound) broadcasting had similarly divided, with stations specializing in a particular musical genre, or news or sports.
In 1901Reginald Aubrey Fessenden made a significant step toward the possibility of broadcasting when he succeeded in superimposing a human voice onto a continuousHertzian wave.[citation needed] Success in this experiment created a need for more advanced equipment, including analternating-current generator large enough to produce the necessary power to carry his transmissions. Fessenden received the backing ofT.H. Given andHay Walker Jr. who contributed money to purchase a powerful generator fromGeneral Electric. He had it installed atBrant Rock, MA, and at 9pm local time on December 24, 1906, he began a broadcast that could be heard by severalUnited Fruit Company ships at sea.[1] After an introduction, the program consisted of the following:[1]
The broadcast with Christmas greetings and a request for listeners to write him and report on the broadcast wherever they were.[1] Fessenden received letters from many of his listeners who heard him from as far away as theWest Indies.[2]
Many individuals continued to experiment with their own methods of broadcasting. For example,Charles Herrold ofSan Jose, California sent out broadcasts as early as April 1909 from hisHerrold School electronics institute in downtown San Jose, using the identification San Jose Calling, and then a variety of differentcall signs as theUnited States Department of Commerce began to regulate radio. His station was first called FN, then SJN (probably illegally). By 1912, the government began requiringradio operators to obtainlicenses to send out signals. Herrold received licenses for 6XF and 6XE (a mobile transmitter) in 1916. He was on the air daily for nearly a decade whenWorld War I interrupted operations.[3]
The involvement of theUnited States in World War I would bring about changes that would take broadcasting out of the hobbyist's workshop and on to a grand stage. TheUnited States Navy would use broadcasting to relay messages between ships, airplanes, and shore stations throughout the war. The result of the Navy's demand for broadcasting was themass production of radio equipment with simplified construction and operation requirements so they could be readily used by the common man. Receivers like theWestinghouse SCR-70 were a single, self-contained unit that required minimal technical ability.[3] Following the war, these units were so plentiful and reasonably priced that virtually every American could own one. This wide availability led to the realization of a market which included everyone.
The formation ofbroadcasting corporations was necessary to produce the capital needed to reach a large audience which would serve as a broadconsumer base. Many experimenters created their own corporations including Fessenden's “National Electric Signaling Company.” Most of these corporations however, did not survive for very long with the exception of the "Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America (American Marconi).” This company would eventually give way to theRadio Corporation of America (RCA) on November 10, 1919, when American Marconi sold off all of its assets.[4]
To compete with RCA (which was a subsidiary ofGeneral Electric),Westinghouse Broadcasting entered the market, hoping for sale of its radio sets and publicity. On October 27, 1920, theDepartment of Commerce granted Westinghouse a permit to broadcast inPittsburgh, PA under the call lettersKDKA. They began the first commercial broadcasts in the United States on November 2, 1920, to report the results ofthat year's presidential election.[3] They used a hand-woundphonograph to play music over the air to fill time between returns.
KDKA would prove to be a very successfulbroadcasting station as a result of superior Westinghouse equipment that was developed from the company's acquisition of theArmstrong-Pupin patents.[citation needed] Rather than compete with Westinghouse, General Electric (GE), RCA, andAT&T formed an alliance with the company on June 30, 1921.[3] Combining the patents owned by all four companies, they would work to improve the broadcasting process and increase the quality of receivers.
While Westinghouse, GE, and RCA were primarily focused on the indirect profits of broadcasting which would result from producing and sellingradio receivers to the general public, AT&T focused on finding a way of making direct profit from broadcasts themselves.[citation needed] They created the concept of “toll broadcasting” which allowed anyone to use a licensed AT&Tradio station to broadcast any message of their choosing. Customers would be charged a fee based on when they wanted to purchase time (certain times during the day were more valuable) and how long they wished to be on the air. It was from this concept that the idea of selling blocks of time to advertisers to fund broadcasts was born. The first such “radio toll station” wasWBAY (later consolidated withWEAF) inNew York City and it went into operation on July 25, 1922.[4]
Westinghouse, GE, RCA, and AT&T had all become quite successful, so much so that thefederal government became interested in their dominance of the broadcasting world. Various members ofCongress were worried about the concentration of power these companies had, especially because it concerned the flow of information. On March 3, 1923, theFederal Trade Commission (FTC) was asked by Congress to open an investigation into theradio industry to find out if violations ofanti-trust laws were being committed.[3]
Upon completion of its study entitled:Report of the Federal Trade Commission on the Radio Industry',[5] the FTC filed a formal complaint with Congress that Westinghouse, GE, RCA, and AT&T had "combined and conspired for the purpose of, and with the effect of, restraining competition and creating amonopoly in the manufacture, purchase and sale in interstate commerce of radio devices...and in domestic and transoceanic communication and broadcasting."[6]Congressional hearings on the matter would begin in May 1924.
Meanwhile, disputes between Westinghouse, GE, RCA, and AT&T would lead to a significant shift in power in the broadcasting industry. Westinghouse, GE, and RCA would force AT&T out of broadcasting altogether and form theNational Broadcasting Company (NBC). RCA would own 50% of NBC while GE and Westinghouse would own 30% and 20% respectively.[3]
TheNational Broadcasting Company began regular broadcasting in 1926, with telephone links between New York and other Eastern cities. NBC became the dominantradio network, splitting into Red and Blue networks.[4]
Despite the power shift, AT&T maintained the ability to sharepatents with Westinghouse, GE, and RCA. This led to theJustice Department filing ananti-trust suit against all four companies in May 1930. To avoid trial, AT&T withdrew from thepatent alliance in 1931 and the remaining three companies developed their owndivorcement plan which left RCA as the sole owner of NBC.[4]
AFederal Communications Commission decision in 1939 required NBC to divest itself of its Blue Network. That decision was sustained by theSupreme Court in a 1943 decision,National Broadcasting Co. v. United States, which established the framework that the "scarcity" of radio-frequency meant that broadcasting was subject to greater regulation than other media.[7] This Blue Network became theAmerican Broadcasting Company (ABC). Around 1946, ABC, NBC, andCBS began regular television broadcasts. Another TV network, theDuMont Television Network, was founded earlier, but was disbanded in 1956.[4]
Television began to replace radio as the chief source of revenue for broadcasting networks. Although many radio programs continued through this decade, includingGunsmoke andThe Guiding Light, by 1960 networks had ceased producing entertainment programs.[8]
As radio stopped producing formal fifteen-minute to hourly programs, a new format developed. "Top 40" was based on a continuous rotation of short pop songs presented by a "disc jockey." Famous disc jockeys in the era includedAlan Freed,Dick Clark,Don Imus andWolfman Jack. Top 40 playlists were theoretically based on record sales; however, record companies began to bribe disc jockeys to play selected artists, in what was calledpayola.[9]
In the 1950s, Americantelevision networks introduced broadcasts in color. (The Federal Communications Commission approved the world's first monochrome-compatiblecolor television standard in December 1953. The first network colorcast followed on January 1, 1954, with NBC transmitting the annualTournament of Roses Parade inPasadena, Calif. to over 20 stations across the country.) An educational television network,National Educational Television (NET), predecessor toPBS, was founded.[8]
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