Thearchitecture of the United Kingdom, orBritish architecture, consists of a combination ofarchitectural styles, dating as far back toRoman architecture, to the present day 21st centurycontemporary.England has seen the most influential developments,[1] thoughIreland,Scotland, andWales have each fostered unique styles and played leading roles in the internationalhistory of architecture.[1] Although there are prehistoric and classical structures in theUnited Kingdom, British architectural history effectively begins with the firstAnglo-Saxon Christian churches, built soon afterAugustine of Canterbury arrived inGreat Britain in 597.[1]Norman architecture was built on a vast scale throughout Great Britain and Ireland from the 11th century onwards in the form of castles and churches to help impose Norman authority upon their dominions.[1]English Gothic architecture, which flourished between 1180 until around 1520, was initially imported fromFrance, but quickly developed its own unique qualities.[1]
Throughout the United Kingdom, secularmedieval architecture has left a legacy of large stonecastles, with a concentration being found lining both sides of theAnglo-Scottish border, dating from theWars of Scottish Independence of the 14th century.[2] Theinvention of gunpowder and cannons made castles redundant, and theEnglish Renaissance that followed facilitated development of new artistic styles for domestic architecture:Tudor style,English Baroque,Queen Anne Style, andPalladian.[2]Georgian,Scots Baronial andNeoclassical architecture advanced after theScottish Enlightenment, and since the 1930s variousmodernist forms appeared, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support fromCharles, Prince of Wales.[3]
Beyond the United Kingdom, the influence of British architecture is evident in most of itsformer colonies and currentterritories across the globe. The influence is particularly strong inIndia,Bangladesh andPakistan[4] the result ofBritish rule in India in the 19th and 20th centuries. The cities ofLahore,Mumbai,Kolkata,Dhaka andChittagong have courts, administrative buildings and railway stations designed in British architectural styles.[4] In the United Kingdom, ascheduled monument is a "nationally important" archaeological site or historic building, given protection against unauthorised change. Alisted building is a building or other structure decreed as being of special architectural, historical or cultural significance; it is a widely used status, applied to around half a million buildings in the UK, enacted by provisions in theTown and Country Planning Act 1947 and theTown and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1947.
Within the United Kingdom are the ruins ofprehistoric structures and ancientneolithic settlements. Thearchitecture of ancient Rome penetratedRoman Britain with "elegant villas, carefully planned towns and engineering marvels likeHadrian's Wall".[6] After theRoman departure from Britain in around the year 400,Romano-British culture flourished but left few architectural remnants, partly because many buildings were made of wood, and partly because the society had passed into theDark Ages. Similarly,Anglo-Saxons brought a "sophisticated building style of their own" to Britain, but little physical evidence survives because the principal building material was wood.[6]
TheNorman Conquest of England, which began in 1066, marked the introduction of large-scale stone-block building techniques to Britain.Norman architecture was built on a vast scale from the 11th century onwards in England, Wales and Ireland in the form of castles, such as theWhite Tower at the heart of theTower of London,[6] andCarrickfergus Castle inCounty Antrim, as well as Gothic churches and cathedrals,[6] to help impose Norman authority upon their dominions.[1][6] The Norman penetration of theScottish nobility resulted inScoto-Norman andRomanesque architecture too, examples beingDunfermline Abbey,St. Margaret's Chapel andSt. Magnus Cathedral.[7]
Throughout Britain and Ireland, simplicity and functionality prevailed in building styles. Castles, such asAlnwick Castle,Caernarfon Castle andStirling Castle served military purpose and their battlements and turrets were practical solutions to medieval warfare.[6] Under thefeudal system that dominated Britain, fitness for purpose characterised domestic structures, particularly for the lower classes. For many, houses were "dark, primitive structures of one or two rooms, usually with crude timber frames, low walls and thatched roofs. They weren't built to last. And they didn't".[6] Although primarily homes,manor houses of theLate Middle Ages, were designed with achieving respect and maintaining status through their hospitality andlordship rather than the grandeur of their buildings.[6] In the Kingdom of England,Perpendicular style gained preference for civic and church structures throughout much of the Middle Ages.King's College Chapel inCambridge, which started in 1446 and was completed in 1515, marks the period of transition between Perpendicular andTudor style architecture.[6]
Between 1500 and 1660 Britain experienced a social, cultural and political change owing to theUnion of the Crowns (the accession ofJames VI, King of Scots, to the throne of England) and theProtestant Reformation.[8] Although Britain became more unified and stable, it became more isolated fromcontinental Europe. Catholic monasteries were closed, and their lands were redistributed, creating new "rich and ambitious" landowners.[8] The architecture of Britain this period reflects these changes; church building declined dramatically, supplanted by the construction ofmansions andmanor houses. ClergymanWilliam Harrison noted in hisDescription of England (1577), "Each one desireth to set his house aloft on the hill, to be seen afar off, and cast forth his beams of stately and curious workmanship into every quarter of the country."[6]
A greater sense of security led to "more outward-looking buildings", as opposed to the Medieval, inward facing buildings constructed for defence.[6] However, owing to troublesome relations with Catholic Europe, the free exchange of ideas was difficult meaning newRenaissance architecture was generally slow to arrive in Britain.[6] Increasingly isolated from the continent, landowners relied on new architectural books for inspiration, as well as surveyors to interpret designs.[8] This allowed for much more in the way of the ornamental facades ofItalianate architecture to penetrate the architecture of Great Britain; room sizes were increased (as an expensive commodity), and there was also a general move towards balanced and symmetrical exteriors with central entrances, all used as statements of wealth.[6] Medieval Gothic architectural forms were gradually dropped, and mansions and other large domestic buildings became "varied and playful".[8] Ultimately drawing upon ancientHellenistic art,Inigo Jones is credited as Britain's first classically inspired architect,[8] providing designs as "sophisticated as anything being built in Italy",[8] such asQueen's House andBanqueting House, both in London. For the majority of the people of Great Britain however, domestic buildings were of poor design and materials, meaning few examples from theearly modern period have survived.[8] Most buildings remained tied to the locality, and local materials shaped buildings.[8] Furthermore, the buildings of the 16th century were also governed by fitness for purpose.[6] However, more stable and sophisticated houses for those lower down the social scale gradually appeared, replacing timber with stone and, later, brick.[6] The arrival ofFlemish people in the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Protestant craftsmen and pattern-books from theLow Countries that also prompted the multiplication ofweavers' cottages.[6]
The 18th century has been described as "a great period in British Architecture".[10] TheActs of Union 1707 put into effect the terms agreed in theTreaty of Union the previous year, resulting in apolitical union between theKingdom of England andKingdom of Scotland to create the newKingdom of Great Britain.[11][12] This union meant that Scottish politicians tended to spend most of their time in London to attend theParliament of the United Kingdom; the tendency was that these individuals became very wealthy. For example, SirWilliam Dundas, a Member of Parliament from theHighlands and Islands who served as one of Britain'sLords Commissioners of the Admiralty, was involved in the financial and political structure of the Kingdom of Great Britain; his increased wealth allowed him to build his own mansion in Scotland.[10] Under the newly formedKingdom of Great Britain, output from theRoyal Society and otherEnglish initiatives combined with theScottish Enlightenment to create innovations in the arts, sciences and engineering.[13] This paved the way for the establishment of theBritish Empire, which became the largest in history. Domestically it drove theIndustrial Revolution, a period of profound change in thesocioeconomic and cultural conditions of Britain, witharchitecture adapted to industrial use.
Georgian architecture in Britain was the term used for all styles of architecture created during its reign by theHouse of Hanover. These includedPalladian,neo-Gothic andChinoiserie.[13] Initially, Georgian architecture was a modifications of the Renaissance architecture of continental Europe. It was a variation on the Palladian style, which was known for balanced façades, muted ornament, and minimal detailing. Simplicity, symmetry, and solidity were the elements strived for in British Georgian architecture.[13] ThePalace of Westminster, aUNESCO World Heritage Site, houses theParliament of the United Kingdom. A collaboration in thePerpendicular Gothic style betweenAugustus Welby Pugin and SirCharles Barry, it is described byLinda Colley as "the building that most enshrines Britain's national and imperial pre-tensions".[9]
Many ancientstanding stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period, amongst the best known areStonehenge,Devil's Arrows,Rudston Monolith andCastlerigg.[14] With the introduction ofAncient Roman architecture there was a development ofbasilicas,baths,amphitheatres,triumphal arches,villas,Roman temples,Roman roads,Roman forts,stockades andaqueducts.[5] It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best known example isHadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England.[5] Another well-preserved example is theRoman Baths atBath, Somerset.[5]Early Medieval architecture's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly usingtimber withthatch for roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis ofHiberno–Saxonmonasticism,[15][16] toEarly Christianbasilica and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 variousCastles in England were created so law lords could uphold their authority and in the north to protect from invasion. Some of the best known medieval castles include theTower of London,Warwick Castle,Durham Castle andWindsor Castle amongst others.[17]
Throughout the Plantagenet era anEnglish Gothic architecture flourished—themedieval cathedrals such asCanterbury Cathedral,Westminster Abbey andYork Minster are prime examples.[17] Expanding on theNorman base there was alsocastles,palaces,great houses,universities andparish churches. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th centuryTudor style; the four-centred arch, now known as theTudor arch, was a defining feature as werewattle and daub houses domestically. In the aftermath of theRenaissance, theEnglish Baroque style appeared, which architectChristopher Wren particularly championed.[18] English Baroque is a casual term. It is sometimes used to refer to the developments inEnglish architecture, that were parallel to the evolution ofBaroque architecture in continental Europe, between theGreat Fire of London (1666) and theTreaty of Utrecht (1713).Queen Anne Style architecture flourished in England from about 1660 to about 1720, even though the Queen's reign covered only the period 1702–1714. Buildings in the Queen Anne style are strongly influenced by Dutch domestic architecture: typically, they are simple rectilinear designs in red brick, with an undemonstrative charm.Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; theRoyal Crescent atBath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence ofromanticism during Victorian period, aGothic Revival was launched—in addition to this around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such asThe Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s variousmodernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.[note 1]
The first known dwelling in Northern Ireland are found at theMount Sandel Mesolithic site inCounty Londonderry and date to 7000 BC.[19] CountiesFermanagh andTyrone are especially rich inStone Age archaeology.Early Christian art and architecture is found throughout Northern Ireland, as well as monastic sites, gravestones, abbeys, round towers and Celtic crosses.[19]
Northern Ireland has some of the largest and finestcastles in Ireland, the earliest of which date back to theNorman invasion of Ireland. Examples ofNorman architecture in Northern Ireland includeCarrickfergus Castle. Other medieval castles includeGreencastle,Jordan's Castle,Dunluce Castle,Dundrum andHarry Avery's Castle.Enniskillen Castle dates back toearly modern Ireland.[20] Fortified homes andbawns continued to be built well into the 17th century, a result of thePlantation of Ulster; examples includeBenburb Castle,Castle Caulfield,Monea Castle, andCastle Balfour.[20] Much of the architecture ofDerry dates from the Plantation of Ulster, including itsdefensive walls.[19]St. Columb's Cathedral....
Northern Ireland in the 18th and 19th centuries produced two varieties of architecture, constructed along the divide of societal privilege; "sumptuous" manor houses of thelanded gentry includeCastle Ward andHillsborough Castle; for many however, domestic life was restricted to "humble cottages".[20] TheNational Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty and theUlster Folk and Transport Museum maintain and conserve farm and village buildings of historical interest, including many of the ancestral homes of the 17-plusPresidents of the United States who have Ulster ancestry.[20] The city ofArmagh hasGeorgian architecture by way of theArmagh Observatory and the city's Georgian quarter; theCatholic St Patrick's Cathedral andAnglican St Patrick's Cathedral are two landmarks in Armagh.[20]
During theVictorian era,Belfast flaunted its economic prowess with "splendid"Victorian architecture, among themBelfast City Hall,Queen's University Belfast,Belfast Castle, theBelfast Botanic Gardens,Albert Memorial Clock, and the ornateCrown Liquor Saloon.[20] Early 20th century landmarks include a number of schools built for Belfast Corporation in the 1930s byR S Wilshere.[21] Notables include the severe, sturdy, 1936 brick built Belfast School of Music on Donegall Pass and the Whitla Hall at Queen's University Belfast, designed by John McGeagh.[22] Belfast has examples of art deco architecture such a such as the Bank of Ireland and Sinclair's department store on Royal Avenue and the Floral Hall at Bellevue.[22] Many of Belfast's oldest buildings are found in theCathedral Quarter. Prominent Northern Irish architects include R S Wilshere and McGeogh, cinema architect James McBride Neil, and Dennis O’D Hanna, part of the "Ulster Unit" group of self-consciously modern artists and craftspeople, promoted by poet and curatorJohn Hewitt.[22]
Prehistoric architecture is found throughout Scotland.Skara Brae is a large stone-builtNeolithic settlement, located on theBay of Skaill on the west coast ofMainland, Orkney. Nicknamed the "BritishPompeii",[23] Skara Brae isEurope's most complete neolithic village and the level of preservation is such that it has gainedUNESCOWorld Heritage Site status in 1999.Celtic tribes during theBronze Age left few physical remnants of their dwellings, but stone Christian monuments andCeltic crosses have endured erosion.ProtohistoricalScotland during the Roman Empire was, unlike the rest of Great Britain, broadly untouched by the Romans, but there are the remains ofRoman forts atTrimontium andInchtuthil.[citation needed]
Scotland is known for its "dramatically placed castles, fused onto defensive ridges and rocky islands".[24] Many of these date fromScotland in the Middle Ages. In contrast to England, which embarked onElizabethan houses, Scotland saw the building of castles and fortified houses continue well into the 17th century, and many were constructed in a building-boom following the Scottish Reformation.[6] The most distinctive Scottish fortification at this time was thetower house.[24] The grandest medieval Scottish castles are composed of a series of courtyards, with akeep at their centre, but the lone keep-towers were more common, particularly amongstScottish feudal barons. Some of Scotland's most famous medieval fortifications includeCastle Stalker andStirling Castle. More recent,Jacobean era castles includeEdinburgh Castle andCraigievar Castle. The arrival of the cannon made high-walled castles defensively impractical and obsolete,[24] but the fortification genre evolved into a style in its own right;Scots Baronial Style architecture has an emphasis on turrets and strong vertical lines drawn from tower houses, and constitutes one of Scotland's "most distinctive contributions to British architecture".[6]
The new political stability, made possible by the Act of Union,[10] allowed for renewed prosperity in Scotland, which led to a spate of new building, both public and private, during the 18th century. Scotland produced "the most important British architects of this age":Colen Campbell,James Gibbs andRobert Adam were Scots interpreting the first phase of Classical forms of ancient Greece and Rome inPalladian architecture.[10]Edinburgh'sNew Town was the focus of this classical building boom, resulting in the city being nicknamed "The Athens of the North" on account both of its intellectual output from theScottish Enlightenment and the city's neo-classical architecture.[25] Together withEdinburgh's Old Town, it constitutes one of the United Kingdom'sWorld Heritage Sites.[26]
Christian architecture in Scotland has a distinct style; TheRoyal Institute of British Architects have stated that "Scottish churches are peculiarly plain, low and often quite humble buildings".[27] TheScottish Reformation revolutionised church architecture in Scotland, because the ScottishCalvinists rejected ornamental places of worship and few churches escaped their attention.[28] This tradition of geometric purity became prominent in Scottish architecture thereafter, but never became popular in England.[28] Similarly, Scotland has produced some of the mostidiosyncratic of architects such asJames,John andRobert Adam,Alexander Thomson andCharles Rennie Mackintosh, which all relate to popular trends in Scottish architecture; all however created Scottish stylistic interpretations and often deliberately injecting traditional Scottish forms into their work.[28] The Adam brothers were leaders of the first phase of the classical revival in theKingdom of Great Britain.[29]
Cromlechs and other prehistoric architecture exits in Wales. Examples includeBryn Celli Ddu a Neolithic site on theIsle of Anglesey, andParc Cwm long cairn on theGower Peninsula.
As stated by SirSimon Jenkins, "Wales has a very long and porous border with England", which had a major influence upon the architecture of Wales.[30] Many Welsh landmark buildings were designed and built by Englishmen, such as the Romanesque-revivalPenrhyn Castle nearBangor, a design byThomas Hopper that blended Norman, Regency and early-Victorian architecture for an English MP who had inherited a vast Welsh estate.[30]
Contemporary architecture has appeared in Wales fromCardiff Bay toCaernarfon, and has a tradition of mixing traditional Welsh materials into modern construction techniques.[31]
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