British Columbia is a diverse and cosmopolitan province, drawing on a plethora of cultural influences from itsBritish Canadian,European, andAsiandiasporas, as well as theIndigenous population. Though the province's ethnic majority originates from theBritish Isles, many British Columbians also trace their ancestors tocontinental Europe, East Asia, and South Asia.[13]Indigenous Canadians constitute about 6 percent of the province's total population.[14] Christianity is the largest religion in the region, though the majority of the population is non-religious.[15][16] English is the common language of the province, althoughPunjabi,Mandarin Chinese, andCantonese also have a large presence in the Metro Vancouver region. TheFranco-Columbian community is an officially recognized linguistic minority, and around one percent of British Columbians claimFrench as their mother tongue.[17] British Columbia is home to at least 34 distinctIndigenous languages.[18]
Major sectors ofBritish Columbia's economy includeforestry, mining, filmmaking andvideo production, tourism, real estate, construction, wholesale, and retail. Its main exports includelumber and timber,pulp and paper products, copper, coal, and natural gas.[19] British Columbia exhibitshigh property values and is a significant centre formaritime trade:[20] thePort of Vancouver is the largest port in Canada and the most diversified port in North America.[21] Although less than 5 percent of the province's territory isarable land, significant agriculture exists in theFraser Valley andOkanagan due to the warmer climate.[22] British Columbia is home to 45% of all publicly listed companies in Canada.[23]
The name of the province was chosen byQueen Victoria, when theColony of British Columbia (1858–1866), i.e., "the Mainland", became a British colony in 1858.[24] It refers to theColumbia District, the British name for the territory drained by theColumbia River, in southeastern British Columbia, which was the namesake of the pre-Oregon TreatyColumbia Department of theHudson's Bay Company. Queen Victoria choseBritish Columbia to distinguish what was the British sector of the Columbia District from the United States' ("American Columbia" or "Southern Columbia"), which became theOregon Territory on August 8 1848, as a result of the treaty.[25]
British Columbia'sgeography is epitomized by the variety and intensity of its physical relief, which has defined patterns ofsettlement and industry since colonization.
British Columbia is bordered to the west by the Pacific Ocean and the American state ofAlaska, to the north byYukon and theNorthwest Territories, to the east by the province ofAlberta, and to the south by the American states ofWashington,Idaho, andMontana. Thesouthern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, although its history is tied with lands as far south as California. British Columbia's land area is 944,735 square kilometres (364,800 sq mi).British Columbia's rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres (17,000 mi), and includes deep, mountainous fjords and about 6,000 islands, most of which are uninhabited. It is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbia's highest mountain isMount Fairweather; the highest mountain entirely within the province isMount Waddington.
British Columbia's capital isVictoria, at the southeastern tip ofVancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of Vancouver Island, fromCampbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated. Much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered bytemperate rainforest.
The province's most populous city is Vancouver, which is at the confluence of theFraser River andGeorgia Strait, in the mainland's southwest corner (an area often called theLower Mainland). By land area,Abbotsford is the largest city.Vanderhoof is near the geographic centre of the province.[29]
Outline map of British Columbia with significant cities and towns
TheCoast Mountains and theInside Passage's manyinlets provide some of British Columbia's renowned and spectacular scenery, which forms the backdrop and context for a growing outdoor adventure andecotourism industry. 75 percent of the province is mountainous (more than 1,000 m [3,300 ft]above sea level); 60 percent is forested; and only about 5 percent is arable.
The province's mainland away from the coastal regions is somewhat moderated by the Pacific Ocean. Terrain ranges from dry inland forests andsemi-arid valleys, to the range and canyon districts of theCentral and Southern Interior, to boreal forest and subarctic prairie in the Northern Interior. High mountain regions both north and south havesubalpine flora[30] andsubalpine climate.
The Southern Interior cities ofKamloops andPenticton have some of the warmest and longest summer climates in Canada (while higher elevations are cold and snowy), although their temperatures are often exceeded north of theFraser Canyon, close to the confluence of the Fraser andThompson rivers, where the terrain is rugged and covered with desert-type flora. Semi-desert grassland is found in large areas of theInterior Plateau, with land uses ranging from ranching at lower altitudes to forestry at higher ones.
The northern, mostly mountainous, two-thirds of the province is largely unpopulated and undeveloped, except for the area east of theRockies, where thePeace River Country contains BC's portion of theCanadian Prairies, centred at the city ofDawson Creek.
Because of the many mountain ranges and rugged coastline, British Columbia's climate varies dramatically across the province.
Coastal southern British Columbia has a mild and rainy climate influenced by theNorth Pacific Current. Most of the region is classified asoceanic, though pockets ofwarm-summer Mediterranean climate also exist in the far-southern parts of the coast. Precipitation averages above 1,000 mm (39 in) in almost all of the coastal region, andHucuktlis Lake onVancouver Island receives an average of 6,903 mm (271.8 in) of rain annually.
Due to the blocking presence of successive mountain ranges, the climate of some of the interior valleys of the province (such as the Thompson, parts of the Fraser Canyon, the southern Cariboo and parts of the Okanagan) issemi-arid with certain locations receiving less than 250 millimetres (10 in) in annual precipitation. The annual mean temperature in the most populated areas of the province is up to 12 °C (54 °F), the mildest anywhere in Canada.
The valleys of the Southern Interior have short winters with only brief bouts of cold or infrequent heavy snow, while those in theCariboo, in theCentral Interior, are colder because of increased altitude and latitude, but without the intensity or duration experienced at similar latitudes elsewhere in Canada. Outside of the driest valleys, the Southern and Central Interior generally have ahumid continental climate with widely variable precipitation. For example, the average daily low inPrince George (roughly in the middle of the province) in January is −12 °C (10 °F).[33] Small towns in the southern interior with high elevation such asPrinceton are typically colder and snowier than cities in the valleys.[34]
Heavy snowfall occurs in all elevated mountainous terrain providing bases for skiers in both south and central British Columbia. Annual snowfall on highway mountain passes in the southern interior rivals some of the snowiest cities in Canada,[35] and freezing rain and fog are sometimes present on such roads as well.[36] This can result in hazardous driving conditions, as people are usually travelling between warmer areas such as Vancouver orKamloops, and may be unaware that the conditions may be slippery and cold.[37]
Shuswap Lake as seen from Sorrento
Winters are generally severe in the Northern Interior which is generally in thesubarctic climate zone, but even there, milder air can penetrate far inland. The coldest temperature in British Columbia was recorded inSmith River, where it dropped to −58.9 °C (−74.0 °F) on January 31, 1947,[38] one of the coldest readings recorded anywhere in North America.Atlin in the province's far northwest, along with the adjoining Southern Lakes region ofYukon, get midwinter thaws caused by theChinook effect, which is also common (and much warmer) in more southerly parts of the Interior.
During winter on the coast, rainfall, sometimes relentless heavy rain, dominates because of consistent barrages of cyclonic low-pressure systems from the North Pacific. Average snowfall on the coast during a normal winter is between 25 and 50 centimetres (10 and 20 in), but on occasion (and not every winter) heavy snowfalls with more than 20 centimetres (8 in) and well below freezing temperatures arrive when modified arctic air reaches coastal areas, typically for short periods, and can take temperatures below −10 °C (14 °F), even at sea level. Arctic outflow winds can occasionally result in wind chill temperatures at or even below −17.8 °C (0.0 °F).[39] While winters are very wet, coastal areas are generally milder and dry during summer under the influence of stable anti-cyclonic high pressure.
Southern Interior valleys are hot in summer; for example, inOsoyoos, the July maximum temperature averages 31.7 °C (89.1 °F), making it the hottest month of any location in Canada; this hot weather sometimes spreads towards the coast or to the far north of the province. Temperatures often exceed 40 °C (104 °F) in the lower elevations of valleys in the Interior during mid-summer, with the record high of 49.6 °C (121.3 °F) being held inLytton on June 29, 2021, duringa record-breaking heat wave that year.[40]
TheOkanagan region has a climate suitable for vineyards.
The extended summer dryness often creates conditions that spark forest fires, from dry-lightning or man-made causes. Many areas of the province are often covered by a blanket of heavy cloud and low fog during the winter months, in contrast to abundant summer sunshine. Annual sunshine hours vary from 2200 near Cranbrook and Victoria to less than 1300 inPrince Rupert, on theNorth Coast just south ofSoutheast Alaska.
The exception to British Columbia's wet and cloudy winters is during theEl Niño phase. During El Niño events, the jet stream is much farther south across North America, making the province's winters milder and drier than normal. Winters are much wetter and cooler during the opposite phase,La Niña.
Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected cities in British Columbia[41]
There are 14 designations of parks and protected areas in the province that reflect the different administration and creation of these areas in a modern context. There are 141 ecological reserves, 35 provincial marine parks, 7 provincial heritage sites, 6National Historic Sites of Canada, 4national parks and 3 national park reserves. 12.5 percent of the province's area (114,000 km2 or 44,000 sq mi) is considered protected under one of the 14 different designations that includes over 800 distinct areas.
British Columbia contains a large number ofprovincial parks, run by BC Parks under the aegis of the Ministry of Environment. British Columbia's provincial parks system is the second largest parks system in Canada, the largest being Canada's National Parks system.
ʼNamgisThunderbird Transformation Mask, 19th century
The area now known as British Columbia is home to First Nations groups with several indigenous languages. There are more than 200 First Nations in BC. Prior to contact (with non-Aboriginal people), human history is known from oral histories, archaeological investigations, and from early records from explorers encountering societies early in the period.
The arrival ofPaleoindians fromBeringia took place between 20,000 and 12,000 years ago.[49]Hunter-gatherer families were the main social structure from 10,000 to 5,000 years ago.[50] The nomadic population lived in non-permanent structures foraging for nuts, berries and edible roots while hunting and trapping larger and small game for food and furs.[50] Around 5,000 years ago individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally. Coast Salish peoples had complex land management practices linked to ecosystem health and resilience. Forest gardens on Canada's northwest coast included crabapple, hazelnut, cranberry, wild plum, and wild cherry species.[51] Thus with the passage of time there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization with a moresedentary lifestyle.[50] These indigenous populations evolved over the next 5,000 years across a large area into many groups with shared traditions and customs.
Contact with Europeans brought a series of devastating epidemics of diseases the people had no immunity to.[54] The population dramatically collapsed, culminating in the 1862 smallpox outbreak in Victoria that spread throughout the coast. European settlement did not bode well for the remaining native population of British Columbia. Colonial officials deemed colonists could make better use of the land than the First Nations people, and thus the land should be owned by the colonists.[55]: 120 To ensure colonists would be able to settle properly and make use of the land, First Nations were forcibly relocated ontoreserves, which were often too small to support their way of life.[55]: 120–121 By the 1930s, British Columbia had over 1500 reserves.[55]: 121
Lands now known as British Columbia were added to theBritish Empire during the 19th century. Colonies originally begun with the support of theHudson's Bay Company (Vancouver Island, the mainland) were amalgamated, then entered Confederation as British Columbia in 1871 as part of the Dominion of Canada.
The explorations ofJames Cook in 1778 andGeorge Vancouver in 1792 and 1793 established British jurisdiction over the coastal area north and west of the Columbia River. In 1793,Alexander Mackenzie was the first European to journey across North America overland to the Pacific Ocean, inscribing a stone marking his accomplishment on the shoreline ofDean Channel nearBella Coola. His expedition theoretically established British sovereignty inland, and a succession of other fur company explorers charted the maze of rivers and mountain ranges between the Canadian Prairies and the Pacific. Mackenzie and other explorers—notablyJohn Finlay,Simon Fraser,Samuel Black, andDavid Thompson—were primarily concerned with extending thefur trade, rather than political considerations.[citation needed] In 1794, by the third of a series of agreements known as theNootka Conventions,Spain conceded its claims of exclusivity in the Pacific. This opened the way for formal claims and colonization by other powers, including Britain, but because of theNapoleonic Wars, there was little British action on its claims in the region until later.
The establishment oftrading posts by theNorth West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), effectively established a permanent British presence in the region. The Columbia District was broadly defined as being south of 54°40′ north latitude, (the southern limit ofRussian America), north of Mexican-controlled California, and west of theRocky Mountains. It was, by theAnglo-American Convention of 1818, under the "joint occupancy and use" of citizens of the United States and subjects of Britain.[60] This co-occupancy was ended with theOregon Treaty of 1846.
With the amalgamation of the two fur trading companies in 1821, modern-day British Columbia existed in three fur-trading departments. The bulk of the central and northern interior was organized into theNew Caledonia district, administered from Fort St. James. The interior south of theThompson Riverwatershed and north of the Columbia was organized into the Columbia District, administered from Fort Vancouver on the lower Columbia River. The northeast corner of the province east of the Rockies, known as the Peace River Block, was attached to the much largerAthabasca District, headquartered inFort Chipewyan, in present-day Alberta.
Until 1849, these districts were a wholly unorganized area ofBritish North America under the de facto jurisdiction of HBC administrators; however, unlikeRupert's Land to the north and east, the territory was not a concession to the company. Rather, it was simply granted a monopoly to trade with the First Nations inhabitants. All that was changed with the westward extension of American exploration and the concomitant overlapping claims of territorial sovereignty, especially in the southernColumbia Basin (within present day Washington andOregon). In 1846, theOregon Treaty divided the territory along the49th parallel to theStrait of Georgia, with the area south of this boundary (excluding Vancouver Island and theGulf Islands) transferred to sole American sovereignty. TheColony of Vancouver Island was created in 1849, with Victoria designated as the capital. New Caledonia, as the whole of the mainland rather than just its north-central Interior came to be called, continued to be an unorganized territory of British North America, "administered" by individual HBC trading post managers.
With theFraser Canyon Gold Rush in 1858, an influx of Americans into New Caledonia prompted thecolonial office to designate the mainland as the Colony of British Columbia. When news of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush reached London, Richard Clement Moody was hand-picked by theColonial Office, underEdward Bulwer-Lytton, to establish British order and to transform the newly established Colony of British Columbia into the British Empire's "bulwark in the farthest west"[61] and "found a second England on the shores of the Pacific".[62] Lytton desired to send to the colony "representatives of the best of British culture, not just a police force": he sought men who possessed "courtesy, high breeding and urbane knowledge of the world"[63]: 13 and he decided to send Moody, whom the government considered to be the archetypal "English gentleman and British Officer"[63]: 19 to lead theRoyal Engineers, Columbia Detachment.
Moody and his family arrived in British Columbia in December 1858, commanding the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment.[9] He was sworn in as the firstlieutenant governor of British Columbia and appointed Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works for British Columbia. On the advice of Lytton, Moody hiredRobert Burnaby as his personal secretary.
Cattle near the Maas by Dutch painterAelbert Cuyp. Moody likened his vision of the nascent Colony of British Columbia to the pastoral scenes painted by Cuyp.
In British Columbia, Moody "wanted to build a city of beauty in the wilderness" and planned his city as an iconic visual metaphor for British dominance, "styled and located with the objective of reinforcing the authority of the crown and of the robe".[63]: 26 Subsequent to the enactment of thePre-emption Act of 1860, Moody settled theLower Mainland. He selected the site and founded the new capital,New Westminster. He selected the site due to the strategic excellence of its position and the quality of its port.[63]: 26 He was also struck by the majestic beauty of the site, writing in his letter to Blackwood,
The entrance to the Frazer is very striking—Extending miles to the right & left are low marsh lands (apparently of very rich qualities) & yetfr the Background of Superb Mountains-- Swiss in outline, dark in woods, grandly towering into the clouds there is a sublimity that deeply impresses you. Everything is large and magnificent, worthy of the entrance to the Queen of England's dominions on the Pacific mainland.... My imagination converted the silent marshes intoCuyp-like pictures of horses and cattle lazily fattening in rich meadows in a glowing sunset.... The water of the deep clear Frazer was of a glassy stillness, not a ripple before us, except when a fish rose to the surface or broods of wild ducks fluttered away.[64][65]
Victoria, 1864
Lord Lytton "forgot the practicalities of paying for clearing and developing the site and the town" and the efforts of Moody's engineers were continuously hampered by insufficient funds, which, together with the continuous opposition ofGovernor James Douglas, whomThomas Frederick Elliot described as "like any other fraud",[66] "made it impossible for [Moody's] design to be fulfilled".[67][68][63]: 27
Moody and the Royal Engineers also built an extensive road network, including what would becomeKingsway, connecting New Westminster toFalse Creek, the North Road betweenPort Moody and New Westminster, and theCariboo Road andStanley Park.[69] He namedBurnaby Lake after his private secretaryRobert Burnaby and named Port Coquitlam's 400-foot "Mary Hill" after his wife. As part of the surveying effort, several tracts were designated "government reserves", which includedStanley Park as a military reserve (a strategic location in case of an American invasion). ThePre-emption Act did not specify conditions for distributing the land, so large parcels were snapped up by speculators, including 1,518 hectares (3,750 acres) by Moody himself. For this he was criticized by local newspapermen forland grabbing. Moody designed the firstcoat of arms of British Columbia.Port Moody is named after him. It was established at the end of a trail that connected New Westminster with Burrard Inlet to defend New Westminster from potential attack from the US.
By 1862, theCariboo Gold Rush, attracting an additional 5000 miners, was underway, and Douglas hastened construction of the Great North Road (commonly known now as theCariboo Wagon Road) up theFraser Canyon to the prospecting region aroundBarkerville. By the time of this gold rush, the character of the colony was changing, as a more stable population of British colonists settled in the region, establishing businesses, openingsawmills, and engaging infishing and agriculture. With this increased stability, objections to the colony's absentee governor and the lack ofresponsible government began to be vocalized, led by the influential editor of theNew WestminsterBritish Columbian and futurepremier,John Robson. A series of petitions requesting an assembly were ignored by Douglas and the colonial office until Douglas was eased out of office in 1864. Finally, the colony would have both an assembly and a resident governor.
A series of gold rushes in various parts of the province followed, the largest being theCariboo Gold Rush in 1862, forcing the colonial administration into deeper debt as it struggled to meet the extensive infrastructure needs of far-flung boom communities likeBarkerville andLillooet, which sprang up overnight. The Vancouver Island colony was facing financial crises of its own, and pressure to merge the two eventuallysucceeded in 1866, when the colony of British Columbia was amalgamated with theColony of Vancouver Island to form theColony of British Columbia (1866–1871), which was, in turn, succeeded by the present day province of British Columbia following theCanadian Confederation of 1871.
The Confederation League led the chorus pressing for the colony to join Canada, which had been created out of three British North American colonies in 1867 (theProvince of Canada, Nova Scotia andNew Brunswick). With the agreement by the Canadian government to extend theCanadian Pacific Railway to British Columbia and assume the colony's debt, British Columbia became the sixth province to joinConfederation on July 20, 1871. The Treaty of Washington sent thePig War San Juan Islands Border dispute to arbitration in 1871 and in 1903, the province's territory shrank again after theAlaska boundary dispute settled the vague boundary of theAlaska Panhandle.
Population in British Columbia continued to expand as the mining,forestry, agriculture, andfishing sectors were developed. Mining activity was notable throughout the Mainland, that a common epithet it, even after provincehood, was "the Gold Colony".[70] Agriculture attracted settlers to the fertile Fraser Valley. Cattle ranchers and later fruit growers came to the drier grasslands of the Thompson Rivers, the Cariboo, theChilcotin, and the Okanagan. Forestry drew workers to the temperate rainforests of the coast, which was also the locus of a growing fishery.
The completion of the railway in 1885 contributed to the economy, facilitating the transportation of the region's considerable resources to the east. The milltown of Granville, also known asGastown was selected as the terminus. This prompted the incorporation of the city of Vancouver in 1886. The completion of thePort of Vancouver spurred rapid growth, and in less than fifty years the city surpassedWinnipeg, Manitoba, as the largest in Western Canada. The early decades of the province were ones in which issues of land use—specifically, its settlement and development—were paramount. This included expropriation from First Nations people of their land, control over its resources, as well as the ability to trade in some resources, such as fishing.
Establishing alabour force to develop the province was problematic, and British Columbia was a destination of immigration from Europe, China, Japan and India. The influx of a non-European population stimulated resentment from the dominant ethnic groups, resulting in agitation and an attempt to restrict the ability ofAsian people to immigrate to British Columbia through the imposition of theChinese head tax.[71] This resentment culminated in mob attacks against Chinese and Japanese immigrants in Vancouver in 1887 and 1907.
In World War I, the province responded strongly to the call to assist the British Empire against its German foes in French and Belgian battlefields. About 55,570 of the province's 400,000 residents, the highest per-capita rate in Canada, responded to the military's need. About 6,225 men from the province died in combat.[72]
In 1914, a second transcontinental rail line, theGrand Trunk Pacific, was completed. This opened up the North Coast andBulkley Valley region to new economic opportunities. What had previously been an almost exclusively fur-trading and subsistence economy soon became an area for forestry, farming, and mining. This sector attracted workers from Asia and Europe, leading to a diverse but conflict-ridden society. The early 20th century saw significant interaction between immigrants,First Nations, and economic forces. There was a rise in the labour movement, marked by strikes and conflicts such as the1935 docker's strike at Ballantyne Pier and theOn-to-Ottawa Trek. These events underscored tensions between workers and big business, often mediated by the Communist Party. Racial and ethnic relations were strained, with legislation reflecting the era's racial prejudices, notably against Asian immigrants and First Nations. The early and mid-20th century was marred by incidents like theKomagata Maru incident, highlighting anti-Asian sentiment.
The interwar period and World War II introduced significant changes, includingprohibition and its eventual repeal, and theinternment of Japanese Canadians. The post-war era saw coalition governments and a booming economy, spearheaded by infrastructure projects and industrial expansion. TheSocial Credit Party, underW.A.C. Bennett, dominated BC politics, initiating major projects and laying the groundwork for future economic growth. The 1970s and 1980s brought economic challenges and political shifts, culminating in theExpo 86 world's fair and the end of Social Credit dominance. This period also saw significant social movements, such asOperation Solidarity. There was a transition to New Democratic Party governance in the 1990s, focusing on environmental conservation and economic struggles. In its second term especially, the NDP government faced political scandals, such as thefast ferry scandal, that ultimately contributed to its downfall.
In the2001 provincial election,Gordon Campbell's Liberals defeated the NDP, gaining 77 out of 79 total seats in the provincial legislature. Campbell instituted reforms and removed some of the NDP's policies, along with selling off the previous government's "fast ferries", lowering income taxes, and instituting the controversial long-term lease ofBC Rail toCanadian National Railway. Campbell led his party to victory in the2005 provincial election against a substantially strengthened NDP opposition and won a third term in the2009 provincial election.
The province won a bid to host the2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler. In 2003, Vancouver's residents had voted in a referendum accepting the responsibilities of the host city should it win its bid. 64 percent of residents voted in favour of hosting.[73] After the Olympic joy faded, Campbell's popularity fell. His management style, implementation of theHarmonized Sales Tax (HST) despite election promises not to introduce it, and cancellation of theBC Rail corruption trial[disputed –discuss] led to low approval ratings and loss of caucus support: he resigned in November 2010.[74] In early 2011, former deputy premierChristy Clark became leader of the Liberals. Early Clark government actions included raising the minimum wage, creating a new statutory holiday in February called "Family Day", and pushing the development of BC'sliquefied natural gas industry. In the lead-up to the2013 election, the Liberals lagged behind the NDP by a double-digit gap in the polls but were able to achieve a surprise victory, winning a majority and making Clark the first woman to lead a party to victory in BC.[75] Her government went on to balance the budget, implement changes to liquor laws and continue with the question of the proposedEnbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines. Inthe 2017 election, the NDP formed a minority government with the support of the Green Party through aconfidence and supply agreement. In July 2017, NDP leader John Horgan was sworn in as a premier. Clark resigned andAndrew Wilkinson became leader of the BC Liberals. In the2020 British Columbia general election, the NDP won 57 seats and formed a majority government. Wilkinson resigned as the leader of the BC Liberals.
British Columbia has been significantly affected by demographic changes within Canada and around the world. Vancouver was a major destination for many immigrants from Hong Kong who left the former UK colony prior toits handover to China. Trends of urbanization mean theGreater Vancouver area now includes 51 percent of the province's population, followed byGreater Victoria with 8 percent. These two metropolitan regions have dominated the demographics of BC.
By 2018, housing prices in Vancouver were the second-least affordable in the world.[76] Many experts point to evidence of money-laundering from China as a contributing factor. The high price of residential real estate has led to the implementation of an empty homes tax, a housing speculation and vacancy tax, and a foreign buyers' tax on housing.[77] The net number of people coming to BC from other provinces in 2016 was almost four times larger than in 2012 and BC was the largest net recipient ofinterprovincial migrants in Canada.[78] In 2023, British Columbia experienced a net population loss of 8,624; a substantial percentage of which were people who moved toAlberta.[79]
British Columbia is the most diverse province in Canada; as of 2021, the province had the highest proportion ofvisible minorities in the country. The five largestpan-ethnic groups in the province areEuropeans (60 percent),East Asians (14 percent),South Asians (10 percent),Indigenous (6 percent) and Southeast Asians (5 percent).[88]
A Vancouverwelcome sign in both English and French
As of the2021 Canadian Census, the ten most spoken languages in the province included English (4,753,280 or 96.69%), French (327,350 or 6.66%), Punjabi (315,000 or 6.41%), Mandarin (312,625 or 6.36%), Cantonese (246,045 or 5.01%), Spanish (143,900 or 2.93%), Hindi (134,950 or 2.75%), Tagalog (133,780 or 2.72%), German (84,325 or 1.72%), and Korean (69,935 or 1.42%).[90] The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses.
Of the 4,648,055 population counted by the 2016 census, 4,598,415 people completed the section about language. Of these, 4,494,995 gave singular responses to the question regarding theirfirst language. The languages most commonly reported were the following:
Most common reported mother tongue in BC (2016)[17]
While these languages all reflect the last centuries of colonialism and recent immigration, British Columbia is home to 34Indigenous languages.[91] They are spoken by about 6000 people in total,[92] with 4000 people fluent in their Indigenous languages.
BC's economy is diverse, with service-producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the province's GDP.[93] It is the terminus of two transcontinental railways, and the site of 27 major marine cargo and passenger terminals. Though less than 5 percent of its vast 944,735 square kilometres (364,764 sq mi) land isarable, the province is agriculturally rich (particularly in theFraser andOkanagan valleys), because of milder weather near the coast and in certain sheltered southern valleys. Its climate encouragesoutdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long beenresource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the province's largest city, serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies. It also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. While the coast of British Columbia and some valleys in the south-central part of the province have mild weather, the majority of its land mass experiences a cold-winter-temperate climate similar to the rest of Canada. TheNorthern Interior region has asubarctic climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, with nighttime January temperatures averaging above the freezing point.[94]
British Columbia has a history of being a resource dominated economy, centred on the forestry industry but also with fluctuating importance in mining. Employment in the resource sector has fallen steadily as a percentage of employment, and new jobs are mostly in the construction and retail/service sectors. It now has the highest percentage of service industry jobs in the west, constituting 72 percent of industry (compared to 60 percent Western Canadian average).[95] The largest section of this employment is in finance, insurance, real estate and corporate management; however, many areas outside of metropolitan areas are still heavily reliant on resource extraction. With its film industry known asHollywood North, the Vancouver region is the third-largest feature film production location in North America, after Los Angeles and New York City.[96]
The economic history of British Columbia is replete with tales ofdramatic upswings and downswings, and thisboom and bust pattern has influenced the politics, culture and business climate of the province. Economic activity related to mining in particular has widely fluctuated with changes in commodity prices over time, with documented costs to community health.[97]
In 2020, British Columbia had the third-largest GDP in Canada, with a GDP of $309 billion and a GDP per capita of $60,090.[98][99] British Columbia'sdebt-to-GDP ratio is edging up to 15.0 percent infiscal year 2019–20, and it is expected to reach 16.1 percent by 2021–22.[100][101] British Columbia's economy experienced strong growth in recent years with a total growth rate of 9.6% from 2017 to 2021, a growth rate that was second in the country.[102]
Thelieutenant governor,Wendy Lisogar-Cocchia, is the Crown's representative in the province. During the absence of the lieutenant governor, the Governor in Council (federal Cabinet) may appoint an administrator to execute the duties of the office. This is usually thechief justice of British Columbia.[103] British Columbia is divided intoregional districts as a means to better enable municipalities and rural areas to work together at a regional level.
The province is currently governed by theBritish Columbia New Democratic Party (BC NDP) under PremierDavid Eby. The 2017 provincial election saw the Liberal Party take 43 seats, the NDP take 41, and theBritish Columbia Green Party take 3. No party met the minimum of 44 seats for a majority, therefore leading to the first minority government since 1953. Following the election, the Greens entered into negotiations with both the Liberals and NDP, eventually announcing they would support an NDP minority government. Previously, the right-of-centreBritish Columbia Liberal Party governed the province for 16 years between 2001 and 2017, and won the largest landslide election in British Columbia history in 2001, with 77 of 79 seats. The legislature became more evenly divided between the Liberals and NDP following the 2005 (46 Liberal seats of 79) and 2009 (49 Liberal seats of 85) provincial elections. The NDP and its predecessor theCo-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) have been the main opposition force to right-wing parties since the 1930s and have governed with majority governments in 1972–1975, 1991–2001 and since 2020 (with a minority government from 2017 to 2020). The Green Party plays a larger role in the politics of British Columbia than Green parties do in most other jurisdictions in Canada. After a breakthrough election in 2001 (12.39 percent), the party's vote share declined (2005 – 9.17 percent, 2009 – 8.09 percent, 2013 – 8.13 percent) before increasing again to a record high of 16.84 percent at the 2017 election.
The British Columbia Liberal Party is not related to the federal Liberal Party and does not share the same ideology. Instead, the BC Liberal party is a rather diverse coalition, made up of the remnants of the Social Credit Party, manyfederal Liberals,federal Conservatives, and those who would otherwise support right-of-centre or free enterprise parties. In 2022,Kevin Falcon was elected leader of the BC Liberals, promising to rename the party in an effort to distance themselves from their federal counterparts. In 2023, the party rebranded asBC United. Historically, there have commonly beenthird parties present in the legislature (including the Liberals themselves from 1952 to 1975); theBC Green Party is the current third party in British Columbia, with three seats in the legislature.
Prior to the rise of the Liberal Party, British Columbia's main political party was the BC Social Credit Party, which governed the province for 20 years. While sharing some ideology with the subsequent Liberal government, they were more right-wing, although they undertook nationalization of various important monopolies, notably BC Hydro and BC Ferries.
The meeting chamber of the Legislative Assembly
British Columbia is known for having politically active labourunions who have traditionally supported the NDP or its predecessor, the CCF.
British Columbia's political history is typified by scandal and a cast of colourful characters, beginning with various colonial-era land scandals and abuses of power by early officials (such as those that led toMcGowan's War in 1858–59). Notable scandals in Social Credit years included theRobert Bonner Affair and theFantasy Gardens scandal which forced Premier Bill Vander Zalm to resign and ended the Social Credit era. NDP scandals included Bingogate, which brought down NDP Premier Mike Harcourt, and the alleged scandal named Casinogate which drove NDP Premier Glen Clark to resign. A variety of scandals plagued the 2001–2017 Liberal government, including Premier Gordon Campbell's arrest for drunk driving in Maui and the resignation of various cabinet ministers because of conflict-of-interest allegations. Araid on the Parliament Buildings on December 28, 2003,[104] in Victoria, including the Premier's Office, resulted in charges only for ministerial aides, although key cabinet members from the time resigned. Campbell eventually resigned in late 2010 due to opposition to his government's plan to introduce aHarmonized Sales Tax (HST) and was replaced byChristy Clark as premier in the 2011 BC Liberal leadership election.
British Columbia is underrepresented in theSenate of Canada, leading Premier Christy Clark to refuse to cooperate with the federal government's reforms for senate appointments to be made based on the recommendations of an advisory board that would use non-partisan criteria. Hours after that plan was unveiled in Ottawa on December 3, 2015, Clark issued a statement that it did "not address what's been wrong with the Senate since the beginning".[105]
The imbalance in representation in that House is apparent when considering population size. The six senators from BC constitute only one for every 775,000 people vs. one for every 75,000 in Prince Edward Island, which has four senators. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick have much smaller populations than BC, yet each has ten senators according to a Global News summary.[106] Correcting this imbalance would require a constitutional amendment, but that is unlikely to be supported by the Atlantic provinces.[106]
Transportation played a huge role in British Columbia's history. The Rocky Mountains and the ranges west of them constituted a significant obstacle to overland travel until the completion of the transcontinental railway in 1885. The Peace River Canyon through the Rocky Mountains was the route the earliest explorers and fur traders used. Fur trade routes were only marginally used for access to British Columbia through the mountains. Travel from the rest of Canada before 1885 meant the difficulty of overland travel via the United States, aroundCape Horn or overseas from Asia. Nearly all travel and freight to and from the region occurred via the Pacific Ocean, primarily through the ports of Victoria and New Westminster.
Until the 1930s, rail was the only means of overland travel to and from the rest of Canada; travellers using motor vehicles needed to journey through the United States. With the construction of the Inter-Provincial Highway in 1932 (now known as theCrowsnest Pass Highway), and later theTrans-Canada Highway, road transportation evolved into the preferred mode of overland travel to and from the rest of the country.
Because of its size and rugged, varying topography, British Columbia requires thousands of kilometres of provincial highways to connect its communities. British Columbia's roads systems were notoriously poorly maintained and dangerous until a concentrated program of improvement was initiated in the 1950s and 1960s. There are nowfreeways in Greater Victoria, the Lower Mainland, and Central Interior of the province. Much of the rest of the province, where traffic volumes are generally low, is accessible by well-maintained generally high-mobility two-lanearterial highways with additional passing lanes in mountainous areas and usually only a few stop-controlled intersections outside the main urban areas.
British Columbia Highway 1 near Brentwood, Burnaby
A couple of busy intercity corridors outside Greater Vancouver feature more heavily signalized limited-mobility arterial highways that are mostly four-lane and often divided by portable mediantraffic barriers.Highway 1 onVancouver Island and Highway 97 through theOkanagan Valley are medium- to high-volume roadways with variable posted speeds that range from 50 km/h (31 mph) to maximums just slightly lower than the principalgrade-separated highways. Numeroustraffic lights operate in place ofinterchanges on both arterials as long-term cost-cutting measures. Signalization along both these highways is heaviest through urban areas and along inter-urban sections where traffic volumes are similar to and sometimes higher than the freeways, but where funding is not available for upgrades to interchanges or construction of high-mobility alternative routes or bypasses. The building and maintenance of provincial highways is the responsibility of theBritish Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure.[109]
Prior to 1979, surfacepublic transit in the Vancouver and Victoria metropolitan areas was administered by BC Hydro, the provincially owned electricity utility. Subsequently, the province establishedBC Transit to oversee and operate all municipal transportation systems. In 1998, the Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority, nowTransLink, a separate authority for routes within the Greater Vancouver Regional District, was established. Some smaller island communities, such asGabriola Island[110] and, formerly,Pender Island[111][112] operate routes independent of BC Transit or TransLink. BC Transit has recently expanded to provide intercity routes,[113] particularly in the Northern region of British Columbia. Other intercity routes were introduced connecting southern communities in preparation of the cancellation ofGreyhound Canada's pullout from Western Canada,[114] though options for intercity bus travel are still extremely limited.
Public transit in British Columbia consists mainly of diesel buses, although Vancouver is also serviced by a fleet oftrolley buses. Several experimental buses are being tested such ashybrid buses that have both gasoline and electric engines. Additionally, there are CNG-fuelled buses being tested and used in Nanaimo and Kamloops systems.[115] British Columbia also tested a fleet of Hydrogen-fuelled buses for the Vancouver-Whistler Winter Olympics in 2010.[116] TransLink operatesSkyTrain, an automatedmetro system serving the cities of Vancouver, Burnaby, New Westminster, Surrey, Richmond, Coquitlam, and Port Moody. In 2009, the Canada Line SkyTrain was completed, linking Vancouver International Airport and the city of Richmond to downtown Vancouver bringing the total to three operating metro lines.
A new extension to Coquitlam andPort Moody (theEvergreen Extension of theMillennium Line) was completed in December 2016. Construction of an extension of the Millennium Line westwards through Vancouver to Arbutus Street began in February 2021,[117] with future plans to extend the line farther west fromArbutus station to theUniversity of British Columbia.[118] Fare gates have been added to all existing stations, though in the past, SkyTrain used a proof of payment honour system. In the capital city of Victoria, BC Transit and the provincial government's infrastructure ministry are working together to create a bus rapid transit from the Westshore communities to downtown Victoria.[119] InKamloops, there is a bus rapid transit GPS trial underway to see how bus rapid transit affects smaller cities, rather than larger ones, like Victoria and Vancouver.[120]
Rail development expanded greatly in the decades after theCanadian Pacific Railway was completed, in 1885, and was the chief mode of long-distance surface transportation until the expansion and improvement of the provincial highways system began in the 1950s. Two major routes through theYellowhead Pass competed with the Canadian Pacific Railway – theGrand Trunk Pacific Railway, terminating at Prince Rupert, and theCanadian Northern Railway, terminating at Vancouver.
TheBritish Columbia Electric Railway provided rail services in Victoria and Vancouver between the nineteenth century and mid twentieth century.
ThePacific Great Eastern line supplemented this service, providing a north–south route between interior resource communities and the coast. The Pacific Great Eastern (later known as British Columbia Railway and now owned by Canadian National Railway) connects Fort St James, Fort Nelson, andTumbler Ridge withNorth Vancouver. The E&N Railway, rebranded as theIsland Rail Corridor, formerly served the commercial and passenger train markets of Vancouver Island. Service along the route is now minimal. Vancouver Island was also host to thelast logging railway in North America until its closure in 2017.
Current passenger services in British Columbia are limited.Via Rail operates 10 long-distance trains per week on two lines.[121] Local services are limited to two regions, withTransLink providing rapid transit and commuter services in theLower Mainland and by theSeton Lake Indian Band South ofLillooet with theKaoham Shuttle.Amtrak runs international passenger service between Vancouver,Seattle, and intermediate points.[122]
BC Ferries was established as a provincial crown corporation in 1960 to provide passenger and vehicle ferry service between Vancouver Island and the Lower Mainland as a cheaper and more reliable alternative to the service operated by the Canadian Pacific Railway and other private operators. It now operates 25 routes among theislands of British Columbia, as well as between the islands and the mainland. Ferry service to Washington is offered by theWashington State Ferries (betweenSidney andAnacortes) andBlack Ball Transport (between Victoria andPort Angeles, Washington). Ferry service over inland lakes and rivers is provided by theMinistry of Transportation and Infrastructure. Various other coastal ferries are operated privately.
Commercial ocean transport is of vital importance. Major ports are at Vancouver,Roberts Bank (nearTsawwassen), Prince Rupert, and Victoria.[123][124]
Vancouver, Victoria, and Prince Rupert are also major ports of call forcruise ships. In 2007, a large maritimecontainer port was opened in Prince Rupert with an inland sorting port in Prince George.
The earliest known visual art produced in thePacific Northwest, and what would become British Columbia, was by First Nations such as the Coast Salish, Haida, Heiltsuk, and Tsimshian, among others. Such Indigenous work comes particularly in the form ofwoodcarving, as seen intotem poles,transformation masks, andcanoes, as well astextile arts likeChilkat weaving andbutton blankets. Traditional Indigenous art of the Pacific Northwest is typically distinguished by theformline style, which is defined as "continuous, flowing, curvilinear lines that turn, swell and diminish in a prescribed manner. They are used for figure outlines, internal design elements and in abstract compositions."[126]
Western styles and forms were introduced to the region through the establishment of British North American settlements in the late 18th century. Notable English-Canadian artists of 19th and early 20th century British Columbia include architectFrancis Rattenbury, designerJames Blomfield, and painterEmily Carr.
The BC roll is a kind of sushi containing barbecued salmon and cucumber
British Columbian cuisine is commonly associated with healthy living,fusion, fresh local ingredients, and innovation.[132] It can be divided into two broadly-defined traditions:cuisine associated with the west coast, which incorporates a variety of seafood elements, andcuisine associated with the interior of the province, which embraces localgame meat,farm-to-table produce, and methods ofcuring andsmoking.[citation needed] Seafood is an important staple of the province's local food culture due to its proximity to the Pacific Ocean, as well as the region's numerous rivers and lakes. BC is known for several unique dishes and is a producer of fruit, wine,[133] and cheese.[134]
Nanaimo bars originate from the city ofNanaimo and consist of a crumb and nut base,custard middle, andganache top layer
British Columbia is also home to numerous unique non-seafood culinary staples. Some dishes includeDoukhobourborscht,Salt Spring Islandlamb,Japadogstreet food, andButter chickenpizza. Some unique pastries include apple cranberrycinnamon buns,Nanaimo bars, and Victoria creams.[132][135][137] British Columbia also produces several distinct local cheeses, such as kabritt, Castle Blue, and Comox Brie.[136] TheLondon Fog tealatte was invented in Vancouver and remains a popular beverage among coffee shops in the Pacific Northwest and Western Canada; it is referred to as a "Vancouver Fog" in Scotland.[138]
British Columbia is renowned for its wine production. The primary wine-producing regions include the Okanagan, theSimilkameen Valley, Vancouver Island, theGulf Islands, and theFraser Valley. As of November 2014, there are 280 licensed grape wineries and 929 vineyards.[139]
Given its varied mountainous terrain and its coasts, lakes, rivers, and forests, British Columbia has long been enjoyed for pursuits like hiking and camping,rock climbing and mountaineering, hunting and fishing.
Water sports, both motorized and non-motorized, are enjoyed in many places.Sea kayaking opportunities abound on the British Columbia coast with itsfjords.Whitewater rafting andkayaking are popular on many inland rivers. Sailing andsailboarding are widely enjoyed.
In winter,cross-country andtelemark skiing are much enjoyed, and in recent decades high-qualitydownhillskiing has been developed in the Coast Mountain range and the Rockies, as well as in the southern areas of the Shuswap Highlands and theColumbia Mountains.Snowboarding has mushroomed in popularity since the early 1990s. The2010 Winter Olympics downhill events were held in theWhistler Blackcomb area of the province, while the indoor events were conducted in the Vancouver area.
In Vancouver and Victoria (as well as some other cities), opportunities forjoggers and bicyclists have been developed. Cross-country bike touring has been popular since theten-speed bike became available many years ago. Since the advent of the more robustmountain bike, trails in more rugged and wild places have been developed for them. A 2016 poll on global biking website Pinkbike rated BC as the top destination mountain bikers would like to ride.[140] Some of the province's retired rail beds have been converted and maintained for hiking, biking, and cross-country skiing.Longboarding is also a popular activity because of the hilly geography of the region.
In certain areas, there are businesses, non-profit societies, or municipal governments dedicated to promotingecotourism in their region. A number of British Columbia farmers offer visitors to combine tourism with farm work, for example, through theWWOOF Canada program.[141]
British Columbia is home to a comprehensive education system consisting of public schools and independent schools that is overseen by the provincial Ministry of Education. The public school system is divided in 59 anglophone school districts and one francophone school district, theConseil scolaire francophone de la Colombie-Britannique, which operates French-language public schools throughout the province.[142] The anglophone school districts are governed by school board trustees who are directly elected by the school district's residents. Although 86 percent of students are enrolled in the public school system, British Columbia has one of the highest shares of independent school enrolment among Canadian province, at 14 percent of the student population, due to its relatively generous funding model; most independent schools receive 50 percent of the operating funding that their public counterparts receive from the government. A very small percentage (less than 1 percent) of students are home schooled.
Like most other provinces in Canada, education is compulsory from ages 6 to 16 (grades 1–10), although the vast majority of students remain in school until they graduate from high school (grade 12) at the age of 18. In order to graduate with a graduation certificate, known as a Dogwood Diploma in BC, students must take a minimum of 80 course credits during grades 10 to 12. These credits include a variety of required courses (e.g. in language arts, social studies, mathematics, and science), as well as elective courses.[143]
Academic achievement in British Columbia is relatively good, although it has been slipping in recent years by some measures. In 2020, 86 percent of students in British Columbia graduated from high school within six years of entering grade 8.[144] According to the 2018 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) scores, students in British Columbia scored the second highest in reading ability, fourth highest in mathematic prowess, and fourth highest in science knowledge of the 10 Canadian provinces, although these scores have declined significantly since the 2000 and 2015 assessments.[145]
In September 2014, there were 11,000 international students in BC public K-12 schools and about 3,000 international students in other BC K-12 schools.[146]
Quest University Canada Academic Building, aerial view
British Columbia has a diverse array of higher educational institutions, ranging from publicly funded universities, colleges, and institutes, to private universities, colleges, seminaries, and career institutes. Public institutions receive approximately half of their funding from grants from the provincial government, with the remaining revenue stemming from tuition charges and philanthropic donations.[147] Each post-secondary institution sets its own admission requirements, although the standard requirement is the completion of high school.
^According to theOxford Guide to Canadian English Usage (ISBN0-19-541619-8; p. 335),BCer(s) is an informal demonym that is sometimes used for residents of BC
^The following portions of southeastern British Columbia observe Mountain Standard and Mountain Daylight Time:
^Indian reserve populations are not included in these figures
^Note: Statistics represent both single (for example, "German") and multiple (for example, "Chinese-English") responses to the 2016 Census, and thus do not add up to 100 percent. All items are self-identified.
^Statistic includes all persons that did not make up part of a visible minority or an indigenous identity.
^Mallandaine, Edward (1887).The British Columbia Directory, containing a General Directory of Business Men and Householders... E. Mallandaine and R. T. Williams. p. 215 in New Westminster District Directory.
^Tatham, David."Moody, Richard Clement".Dictionary of Falklands Biography.Archived from the original on July 31, 2021. RetrievedJune 6, 2022.
^"Princeton A".Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010.Environment Canada. September 25, 2013.Archived from the original on January 16, 2019. RetrievedJanuary 15, 2018.
^"GLACIER NP ROGERS PASS".Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 Station Data. Environment Canada. September 25, 2013.Archived from the original on January 16, 2019. RetrievedJanuary 16, 2019.
^Heidorn, Keith C. (2002)."North America's Record Cold". The Weather Doctor Almanac.Archived from the original on July 21, 2012. RetrievedJuly 14, 2012.
^"Sealife". Oceanwatch BC Coast. November 28, 2016.Archived from the original on February 12, 2022. RetrievedFebruary 12, 2022.
^BC Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management, Conservation Data Centre
^Coates, K. Dave; Haeussler, Sybille; Lindeburgh, Scott; Pojar, Rosamund; Stock, Arthur J. (January 1994).Ecology and Silviculture of Interior Spruce in British Columbia(PDF) (Report). Canada/British Columbia Partnership Agreement Forest Resource Development: FRDA II.ISSN0835-0752.Archived(PDF) from the original on February 21, 2018. RetrievedOctober 30, 2022.
^Moody, Richard Clement.Letter of Colonel Richard Clement Moody, R.E., to Arthur Blackwood, February 1, 1859, preserved in the British Columbia Historical Quarterly (January – April 1951), ed. Willard E. Ireland, Archives of British Columbia. British Columbia Historical Association. pp. 85–107.
^Belshaw, John Douglas (2015)."13.9 The Gold Colony".Canadian History: Pre-Confederation.Archived from the original on January 1, 2022. RetrievedJanuary 1, 2022.
^Dickson, Greg; Forsythe, Mark (Summer 2015). "From the West Coast to the Western Front: British Columbians and the Great War".British Columbia History magazine. Vol. 48, no. 2.
^Wallechinsky, D.; Loucky, J. (2010).The Complete Book of the Winter Olympics: 2010 Edition. p. 12.
^Lovely, Warren; Maltais, Catherine (February 19, 2019)."British Columbia 2019 Budget"(PDF).National Bank of Canada Financial Markets:1–3. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on December 24, 2019. RetrievedSeptember 19, 2019 – via National Bank of Canada.
^Modigliani, Leah (2018).Engendering an Avant-Garde: the unsettled landscapes of Vancouver Photo-Conceptualism. Rethinking art histories. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 2.ISBN978-1-5261-0119-8.
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