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DuringWorld War I (1914–1918),Brazil initially adopted a neutral position in accordance with theHague Convention as an attempt to maintain markets for its export products, mainlycoffee,latex, and industrially manufactured items.
However, following the repeated sinking of Brazilian merchant ships by German submarines, PresidentVenceslau Brás declared war against theCentral Powers in 1917. Brazil then became the only country inLatin America to be directly involved in the war. Brazil's major contribution was theBrazilian Navy's patrol of areas in theAtlantic Ocean.
Brazil officially declared neutrality on August 4, 1914. At the beginning of the war, although neutral, it faced a complicated social and economic situation. The Brazilian economy was largely based on exports of agricultural products such as coffee, latex, and very limited industrial manufacturing.[citation needed] As these products exported by Brazil were not considered essential by foreign governments or consumers, customs duties and export fees decreased as the conflict continued.[citation needed] This was worsened bythe German blockade of Allied ports, as well as a British ban on the importation of coffee into England in 1917;[citation needed] the latter was introduced because the British government began prioritizing the shipping of more vital goods given the great losses of merchant ships as a result of German attacks.
On May 3, 1916, the Brazilian merchant shipRio Branco was sunk by a Germansubmarine, but this was in restricted waters, and the ship was registered under the British flag, with most of its crew composed of Norwegians. Therefore, the Brazilian government didn't consider it an illegal attack despite public uproar.[citation needed]
Relations between Brazil and theGerman Empire were shaken by the German decision to introduceunrestricted submarine warfare, thus allowing its submarines to sink any ship that breached the blockade.[1] On April 5, 1917, the Brazilian steamshipParaná was torpedoed by aGerman submarine, which killed three Brazilians.[1]
When news of the sinking of theParaná arrived in Brazil a few days later, several protests erupted in the capital. InPorto Alegre, initially, peaceful marches were organized with thousands of people. Later, however, demonstrators began attacking shops and properties owned by ethnic Germans or their descendants; examples were the Hotel Schmidt, the Germany Society, the club and the newspaperDeutsche Zeitung, and the Turnerbund. These and other establishments were raided, looted, and torched. On November 1, 1917, an enraged mob damaged houses, clubs, and factories inPetropolis, including the restaurant Brahma (which was completely destroyed), the Gesellschaft Germania, the German school, the Arp company, and theGerman Journal, among others. At the same time, there were minor demonstrations in other cities. Such violence continued until Brazil declared war against Germany and its allies in October 1917. (Additionally, theMinister of Foreign RelationsLauro Müller, a citizen of German origin with a pro-neutrality position, was forced to resign.)
Althoughnationalist and pro-war demonstrations intensified over 1917, they never surpassed the anti-war and anti-militarist demonstrations led bytrade unionists,anarchists andpacifists which opposed the war and accused the government of diverting attention from internal problems, sometimes coming into conflict with the very nationalist groups that supported Brazil's active participation in the war. Violent repression followed ageneral strike late in 1917, and the declaration of war in October also served as a means to declare astate of emergency and persecute opponents.[2][3]
The administration ofVenceslau Brás, which was in its last year in office, made statements implying that it did not intend to involve the country deeper into the conflict. Nevertheless, in early 1918, a confidential report commissioned by the presidential candidate elected that year,Rodrigues Alves, was completed. This report, regarding the entry of Brazil into the conflict, was coordinated by the parliamentary expert on foreign policy and military affairs,João Pandiá Calogeras. Dubbed the Calogeras Plan, it recommended that the country send an expeditionary force of considerable size to fight in the war. It also advised using all necessary means (including ships of enemy powers already seized in Brazilian waters and ports) to disembark the troops on French soil where they would be trained and equipped by the French—all was to be financed with U.S. bank loans which in turn would be settled by compensation imposed on the defeated enemies after the war.[9]
The Calogeras Plan (which was only made public after the death of its authors) contained several proposals, intended for the newly elected administration taking office in November of that year, across several government areas. However, the international and domestic events that year, as well as the specific circumstances of Brazilian politics (with a notable opposition to war in the population) and the country's unclear foreign policy, ultimately prevented it from being carried forward, precluding the country from greater involvement in the conflict.[10]
The Brazilian Army was enlarged to 54,000 men following the declaration of war, but this rapid expansion meant that most immediately available resources had to be directed to the training and equipping of new recruits. Brazil's direct participation in land operations was limited to a preparatory military mission of 24 officers and sergeants sent to Europe in mid-1918. Its members were attached to allied units, mainly in the French Army, to gain awareness of modern techniques employed in organization and combat on the Western Front.
One-third of the officers who were sent to France were promoted for their courage in battle.[11] Among them wereJosé Pessoa, who was a lieutenant at the time. Throughout his career, he became an important ideologue and reformer of theBrazilian Army.[12] Also promoted was MajorTertuliano Potiguara, a controversial figure accused ofwar crimes in theContestado campaign, who was wounded in action at theBattle of St. Quentin Canal during theMeuse-Argonne Offensive.[13]
The end of World War I in November 1918 precluded the further development of the country's military involvement in the war as envisioned in the Calogeras Plan.
Brazil's main military involvement in World War I took place at sea. In particular, the Secretary of the Navy ordered the use of naval power in theanti-submarine campaign, with Admiral Alexandre Faria de Alencar organizing a task force that would allow the effective participation of the Brazilian Navy in World War I. Ministerial Notice No. 501 was issued on January 30, 1918, thus establishing the Naval Division for War Operations (Divisão Naval em Operações de Guerra, or DNOG), anaval fleet composed of units drawn from the fleets that formed the Navy in Brazil. ThedreadnoughtsMinas Geraes andSão Paulo, as well as theBahia andRio Grande do Sul, were some of the major warships of the DNOG.[14]
The DNOG comprised the following vessels:
The DNOG was initially tasked to patrol the Atlantic maritime area covered by the triangle between the city ofDakar on the African coast, the island ofSão Vicente, Cape Verde, andGibraltar at the entrance to the Mediterranean. The Division would remain under the orders of the British Admiralty, represented by AdmiralHischcot Grant. As Commander, the Minister appointed one of the most well-regarded officers at the time, AdmiralPedro Max Fernando Frontin, on January 30, 1918.
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The war at sea fought by Brazil's navy began on August 1, 1918, following the departure of the force from the port ofRio de Janeiro. On August 3, 1918, the German submarineU-43 torpedoed the Brazilian shipMaceió. On August 9, 1918, the mission reachedFreetown inSierra Leone, with the fleet staying 14 days, during which the crew began falling ill withSpanish flu during apandemic.
On the night of August 25, while sailing from Freetown to Dakar, thedivision suffered a torpedo attack by German submarines, but no casualties or damage were suffered by the Brazilian vessels; the torpedoes passed harmlessly between the Brazilian ships. A successful counter-attack usingdepth charges was launched, and the Royal Navy credited the Brazilians with the destruction of aU-boat.[15] Subsequently, after anchoring in the port of Dakar, the crews were again severely hit by the Spanish flu, which claimed the lives of over a hundred sailors and kept the Division restricted to port for almost two months.
Among the Allied naval command, there was debate about how the forces of the Brazilian fleet should be used: "The Italians wanted them in theMediterranean, the Americans wanted them to work closely with US forces, and the French wanted to keep them protecting the commercial maritime traffic along the African coast Between Dakar and Gibraltar".[16] This indecision among the Allied command, combined with operational problems and theSpanish flu pandemic, led to extended delays. In effect, the fleet didn't arrive at Gibraltar until the beginning of November 1918, just days before the signing of thearmistice and theend of the war.
As another preparatory military mission, the navy sent a group ofmilitary aviators who served with theRoyal Air Force on the western front.[17]
On August 18, 1918, the Brazilian Medical Mission, led by Dr. Nabuco Gouveia and directed by General Aché, was established with 86 doctors, civilian pharmacists, administrative support staff, and a security platoon. They were sent to the European Theatre to establish a hospital.
On September 24, 1918, the Mission landed at the French port ofMarseille. The hospital was opened in Paris, but the main roles performed by the Medical Mission were in providing treatment for French sufferers during theSpanish flu epidemic[18] and in ensuring the continuity of logistical support to the troops at the front. The Medical Mission was terminated in February 1919.
Afterthe war's end, Brazil participated in theVersailles Peace Conference with a delegation led byEpitácio Pessoa, Brazil's future president. Brazil was also a founder of theLeague of Nations after the end of the war.
Upon returning to Brazil, the Naval Division (DNOG) was dissolved on June 25, 1919, having complied fully with its entrusted mission. TheTreaty of Versailles allowed Brazil to keep over 70 ships that it had seized from the Central Powers during the war, which were then incorporated into the Brazilian merchant fleet. Brazil was also financially compensated by Germany for the lost coffee shipments and ships that were sunk by German U-boats during the war.[citation needed]
From an economic point of view, although exports of latex and coffee initially fell sharply and created a crisis in the economy as the conflict continued, Brazil eventually began to find good trading opportunities. Increased international demand for foodstuffs and raw materials forced the country to change its economic structure away from predominant agriculture. It was during this time that Brazil underwent unprecedented industrial development, also making use of immigrant labor primarily composed of Europeans initially fleeing famine and then the war. The number of factories quadrupled in the war years, doubling the number of workers, and Brazil reduced its number of imported items, leading to a transformation in the country's socioeconomic landscape.[citation needed]