The bovids show great variation in size andcolouration of theirfur. With exceptions in somedomesticated forms, all male bovids have two or morehorns, and in many species, females possess horns too. The size and shape of the horns vary greatly, but the basic structure is always one or more pairs of simple, unbranched, bony protrusions of theskull covered in a permanent sheath ofkeratin, and often with a spiral, twisted, orfluted shape, Most bovids bear 30 to 32 teeth.
Most bovids arediurnal.Social activity and feeding usually peak during dawn and dusk. Bovids typically rest before dawn, duringmidday, and after dark. They have various methods of social organisation andsocial behaviour, which are classified into solitary and gregarious behaviour. Bovids use different forms of vocal, olfactory, and tangiblecommunication. Most species alternately feed and ruminate throughout the day. While small bovids forage in dense and closed habitat, larger species feed onhigh-fiber vegetation in opengrasslands. Most bovids arepolygynous. Mature bovids mate at least once a year and smaller species may even mate twice. In some species, newborn or neonate bovids remain hidden for a week to two months, regularlynursed by their mothers; in other species, neonates are followers, accompanying their travelling mothers shortly after birth.
The greatestdiversities of Bovidae occur inAfrica. The maximum concentration of species is in thesavannas ofEastern Africa. Other bovid species also occur in Europe, Asia, and North America. A number of bovid species aredomesticated, including three whose use has spread worldwide, these being thecattle,sheep, andgoats.Dairy products, such asmilk,butter, andcheese, are manufactured largely from domestic cattle. Bovids are also raised for theirleather,meat, andwool.
The nameBovidae was coined by the British zoologistJohn Edward Gray in 1821.[1] It is composed of the prefixbov- (originating fromLatinbos'ox', throughLate Latinbovinus) and the suffix-idae.[2]
Thefamily Bovidae is placed in theorderArtiodactyla, the even-toedungulates. It includes 143 extant species, accounting for nearly 55% of ungulate diversity, and 300 known extinct species.[3]
In 1992, Alan W . Gentry of theNatural History Museum, London divided the eight major subfamilies of Bovidae into two major clades on the basis of their evolutionary history: the Boodontia, which comprised only the Bovinae, and the Aegodontia, which consisted of the rest of the subfamilies. Boodonts have somewhatprimitive teeth, resembling those ofoxen, whereas aegodonts have moreadvanced teeth like those of goats.[9]
Alternatively, all members of the Aegodontia can be classified within the subfamily Antilopinae, with the individual subfamilies being tribes in this treatment.[14][15]
Skull ofEotragus sansaniensis, a species of the ancient bovid genusEotragus
In the early Miocene, bovids begandiverging from thecervids (deer) andgiraffids. The earliest bovids, whose presence in Africa and Eurasia in the latter part of early Miocene (20Mya) has been ascertained, were small animals, somewhat similar to moderngazelles, and probably lived inwoodland environments.[16]Eotragus, the earliest known bovid, weighed 18 kg (40 lb) and was nearly the same in size as theThomson's gazelle.[17] Early in their evolutionary history, the bovids split into two main clades: Boodontia (of Eurasian origin) and Aegodontia (of African origin). This earlysplit between Boodontia and Aegodontia has been attributed to the continental divide between these land masses. When these continents were later rejoined, this barrier was removed, and both groups expanded into the territory of the other.[18] The tribesBovini and Tragelaphini diverged in the early Miocene.[19] Bovids are known to have reached theAmericas in the Pleistocene by crossing theBering land bridge.[17]
The present genera of Alcelaphinae appeared in thePliocene. The extinct Alcelaphine genusParamularius, which was the same in size as the hartebeest, is believed to have come into being in the Pliocene, but became extinct in the middlePleistocene.[6] Several genera of Hippotraginae are known since the Pliocene and Pleistocene. This subfamily appears to have diverged from the Alcelaphinae in the latter part of early Miocene.[19] The Bovinae are believed to havediverged from the rest of the Bovidae in the earlyMiocene.[20] The Boselaphini became extinct in Africa in the early Pliocene; their latest fossils were excavated inLangebaanweg (South Africa) andLothagam (Kenya).[21]
The middle Miocene marked the spread of the bovids into China and theIndian subcontinent.[17] According to Vrba, theradiation of the subfamily Alcelaphinae began in the latter part of middle Miocene.[6] The Caprinae tribes probably diverged in the early middle Miocene. The Caprini emerged in the middle Miocene, and seem to have been replaced by other bovids and cervids in Eurasia.[22] The earliest fossils of the antilopines are from the middle Miocene, though studies show the existence of the subfamily from the early Miocene.Speciation occurred in thetribeAntilopini during the middle or upper Miocene, mainly in Eurasia. TribeNeotragini seems to have appeared in Africa by the end of Miocene, and had become widespread by the Pliocene.[19]
By the late Miocene, around 10 Mya, the bovids rapidlydiversified, leading to the creation of 70 new genera.[17] This late Miocene radiation was partly because many bovids became adapted to more open, grassland habitats.[16] The Aepycerotinae first appeared in the late Miocene, and no significant difference in the sizes of the primitive and modern impala has been noted.[23] Fossils of ovibovines, a tribe of Caprinae, in Africa date back to the late Miocene.[19] The earliest Hippotragine fossils date back to the late Miocene, and were excavated from sites such as Lothagam andAwash Valley.[19] The first African fossils of Reduncinae date back to 6-7 Mya.[24] Reduncinae and Peleinae probably diverged in the mid-Miocene.[6]
Theanoa, a dwarf species of buffalo, has a dark pelage
All bovids have the similar basic form - a snout with a blunt tip, one or more pairs of horns (generally present on males) immediately after the oval or pointed ears, a distinct neck and limbs, and a tail varying in length and bushiness among the species.[26] Most bovids exhibitsexual dimorphism, with males usually larger as well as heavier than females.Sexual dimorphism is more prominent in medium- to large-sized bovids. All bovids have four toes on each foot – they walk on the central two (thehooves), while the outer two (thedewclaws) are much smaller and rarely touch the ground.[3]
The bovids show great variation in size: thegaur can weigh more than 1,500 kg (3,300 lb), and stand 2.2 m (87 in) high at the shoulder.[27] Theroyal antelope, in sharp contrast, is only 25 cm (9.8 in) tall and weighs at most 3 kg (6.6 lb).[28] Theklipspringer, another small antelope, stands 45–60 cm (18–24 in) at the shoulder and weighs just 10–20 kg (22–44 lb).[29]
Differences occur inpelage colouration, ranging from a pale white (as in theArabian oryx)[30] to black (as in theblack wildebeest).[31] However, only the intermediate shades, such as brown and reddish brown (as in thereedbuck), are commonly observed.[32] In several species, females and juveniles exhibit a light-coloured coat, while those of males darken with age. As in thewildebeest, the coat may be marked with prominent or faint stripes. In some species such as theaddax, the coat colour can vary by the season.[33]Scent glands andsebaceous glands are often present.[26]
Thegemsbok has conspicuous markings on its face, which conceal the eye, and on its legs. These may have a role in communication.[34]
Some species, such as thegemsbok,sable antelope, andGrant's gazelle, arecamouflaged with stronglydisruptive facial markings that conceal the highly recognisable eye.[35] Many species, such as gazelles, may be made to look flat throughcountershading, hence blending into the background.[36] The outlines of many bovids are broken up with bold disruptive colouration, the strongly contrasting patterns helping to delay recognition by predators.[37] However, all the Hippotraginae (including the gemsbok) have pale bodies and faces with conspicuous markings. The zoologistTim Caro describes this as difficult to explain, but given that the species are diurnal, he suggests that the markings may function in communication. Strongly contrasting leg colouration is common only in the Bovidae, where for exampleBos,Ovis,bontebok and gemsbok have white stockings. Again, communication is the likely function.[34]
Excepting some domesticated forms, all male bovids have horns, and in many species, females too possess horns. The size and shape of the horns vary greatly, but the basic structure is a pair of simple bony protrusions without branches, often having a spiral, twisted, or fluted form, each covered in a permanent sheath of keratin. Although horns occur in a single pair on almost all bovid species, there are exceptions such as thefour-horned antelope[38] and theJacob sheep.[39][40] The unique horn structure is the only unambiguous morphological feature of bovids that distinguishes them from otherpecorans.[41][42] A high correlation exists between horn morphology and fighting behaviour of the individual. For instance, long horns are intended for wrestling and fencing, whereas curved horns are used in ramming.[43] Males with horns directed inwards aremonogamous and solitary, while those with horns directed outwards tend to bepolygynous. These results were independent of body size.[44]
Male horn development has been linked tosexual selection,[45][46] Horns are small spikes in the monogamous duikers and other small antelopes, whereas in the polygynous, they are large and elaborately formed (for example in a spiral structure, as in thegiant eland). Thus, to some extent, horns depict the degree ofcompetition among males in a species.[32] However, the presence of horns in females is likely due tonatural selection.[45][47] The horns of females are usually smaller than those of males, and are sometimes of a different shape. The horns of female bovids are believed to have evolved for defence against predators or to express territoriality, as non-territorial females, which are able to usecrypsis for predator defence, often do not have horns.[47] Females possess horns only in half of the bovid genera, and females in these genera are heavier than those in the rest. Females use horns mainly for stabbing.[48]
In bovids, the third and fourthmetapodials are combined into thecannon bone. Theulna andfibula are reduced, and fused with the radius and tibia, respectively. Longscapulae are present, whereas the clavicles are absent. Beingruminants, the stomach is composed of four chambers: therumen (80%), theomasum, thereticulum, and theabomasum. Theciliates andbacteria of the rumenferment the complexcellulose into simplerfatty acids, which are then absorbed through the rumen wall. Bovids have a longsmall intestine; the length of the small intestine incattle is 29–49 m (95–161 ft). Body temperature fluctuates through the day; for instance, in goats the temperature can change slightly from nearly 37 °C (99 °F) in the early morning to 40 °C (104 °F) in the afternoon. Temperature is regulated through sweating in cattle, whereasgoats use panting for the same. The rightlung, consisting of four to fivelobes, is around 1.5 times larger than the left, which has three lobes.[3][26]
Dental pad of a domestic bovid: Note the absence of upper incisors and canines and the outward projection of the lower teeth.
Most bovids bear 30 to 32 teeth.[32] While the upperincisors are absent, the uppercanines are either reduced or absent. Instead of the upper incisors, bovids have a thick and tough layer of tissue, called thedental pad, that provides a surface to grip grasses and foliage. They arehypsodont andselenodont, since themolars andpremolars are low-crowned and crescent-shapedcusps. The lower incisors and canines project forward. The incisors are followed by a long toothless gap, known as thediastema.[49] The generaldental formula for bovids is0.0.2-3.33.1.3.3. Most members of the family areherbivorous, but most duikers areomnivorous. Like other ruminants, bovids have four-chambered stomachs, which allow them to digest plant material, such asgrass, that cannot be used by many other animals. Ruminants (and some others likekangaroos,rabbits, andtermites) are able to usemicro-organisms living in their guts to break down cellulose byfermentation.[3]
The bovids have various methods of social organisation and social behaviour, which are classified into solitary and gregarious behaviour. Further, these types may each be divided into territorial and non-territorial behaviour.[32] Small bovids such as the klipspringer,oribi, andsteenbok are generally solitary and territorial. They hold small territories into which other members of the species are not allowed to enter. These antelopes formmonogamous pairs. Many species such as thedik-dik usepheromone secretions from thepreorbital glands and sometimes dung, as well, to mark their territories.[50] The offspring disperse at the time of adolescence, and males must acquire territories prior to mating.[3] Thebushbuck is the only bovid that is both solitary and not territorial. This antelope hardly displays aggression, and tends to isolate itself or form loose herds, though in a favourable habitat, several bushbuck may be found quite close to one another.[51]
Excluding the cephalophines (duikers), tragelaphines (spiral-horned antelopes) and theneotragines, most African bovids are gregarious and territorial. Males are forced to disperse on attaining sexual maturity, and must form their own territories, while females are not required to do so. Males that do not hold territories form bachelor herds. Competition takes place among males to acquire dominance, and fights tend to be more rigorous in limitedrutting seasons. With the exception of migratory males, males generally hold the same territory throughout their lives.[32] In the waterbuck, some male individuals, known as "satellite males", may be allowed into the territories of other males and have to wait till the owner grows old so they may acquire his territory.[52]Lek mating, where males gather together and competitively display to potential mates, is known to exist amongtopis,kobs, andlechwes.[53] The tragelaphines, cattle, sheep, and goats are gregarious and not territorial. In these species, males must gain absolute dominance over all other males, and fights are not confined to territories. Males, therefore, spend years in body growth.[32]
Most bovids are diurnal, although a few such as the buffalo, bushbuck, reedbuck, and grysbok are exceptions. Social activity and feeding usually peak during dawn and dusk. The bovids usually rest before dawn, during midday, and after dark. Grooming is usually by licking with the tongue. Rarely do antelopes roll in mud or dust. Wildebeest and buffalo usually wallow in mud, whereas the hartebeest and topi rub their heads and horns in mud and then smear it over their bodies. Bovids use different forms of vocal, olfactory, and tangible communication. These involve varied postures of neck, head, horns, hair, legs, and ears to convey sexual excitement, emotional state, or alarm. One such expression is theflehmen response. Bovids usually stand motionless, with the head high and an intent stare, when they sense danger. Some like the impala, kudu, and eland can even leap to heights of a few feet.[32] Bovids may roar or grunt to caution others and warn off predators.[3] Bovids such as gazellesstot or pronk in response to predators, making high leaps on stiff legs,indicating honestly both that the predator has been seen, and that the stotting individual is strong and not worth chasing.[54]
In the mating season, rutting males bellow to make their presence known to females.Muskoxen roar during male-male fights, and male saigas force air through their noses, producing a roar to deter rival males and attract females. Mothers also use vocal communication to locate their calves if they get separated. During fights over dominance, males tend todisplay themselves in an erect posture with a level muzzle.[55][56]
Fighting techniques differ amongst the bovid families and also depend on their build. While the hartebeest fight on knees, others usually fight on all fours. Gazelles of various sizes use different methods of combat. Gazelles usually box, and in serious fights may clash and fence, consisting of hard blows from short range. Ibex, goat and sheep males stand upright and clash into each other downwards. Wildebeest use powerful head butting in aggressive clashes. If horns become entangled, the opponents move in a circular manner to unlock them. Muskoxen will ram into each other at high speeds. As a rule, only two bovids of equal build and level of defence engage in a fight, which is intended to determine the superior of the two. Individuals that are evidently inferior to others would rather flee than fight; for example, immature males do not fight with the mature bulls. Generally, bovids direct their attacks on the opponent's head rather than its body. The S-shaped horns, such as those on theimpala, have various sections that help in ramming, holding, and stabbing. Serious fights leading to injury are rare.[32][55][57]
Bovids areherbivores, feeding on grass, foliage, and plant products. Theseplains bison are grazing
Most bovids alternately feed and ruminate throughout the day. While those that feed on concentrate feed and digest in short intervals, the roughage feeders take longer intervals. Only small species such as the duiker browse for a few hours during day or night.[32] Feeding habits are related to body size; while small bovids forage in dense and closed habitat, larger species feed upon high-fiber vegetation in open grasslands.Subfamilies exhibit different feeding strategies. While Bovinae species graze extensively on fresh grass and diffused forage, Cephalophinae species (with the exception ofSylvicapra) primarily consume fruits.[3] Reduncinae and Hippotraginae species depend on unstable food sources, but the latter are specially adapted to arid areas. Members of Caprinae, being flexible feeders, forage even in areas with low productivity. Tribes Alcelaphini, Hippotragini, and Reduncini have high proportions ofmonocots in their diets. On the contrary, Tragelaphini and Neotragini (with the exception ofOurebia) feed extensively ondicots.[58] No conspicuous relationship exists between body size and consumption of monocots.[59]
Most bovids are polygynous. In a few species, individuals are monogamous, resulting in minimal male-male aggression and reduced selection for large body size in males. Thus, sexual dimorphism is almost absent. Females may be slightly larger than males, possibly due to competition among females for the acquisition of territories. This is the case in duikers and other small bovids.[60][61] The time taken for the attainment ofsexual maturity by either sex varies broadly among bovids. Sexual maturity may even precede or follow mating. For instance, the impala males, though sexually mature by a year, can mate only after four years of age.[62] On the contrarybarbary sheep females may give birth to offspring even before they have gained sexual maturity.[63] The delay in male sexual maturation is more visible in sexually dimorphic species, particularly the reduncines, probably due to competition among males.[3] For instance, theblue wildebeest females become capable of reproduction within a year or two of birth, while the males become mature only when four years old.[31]
All bovids mate at least once a year, and smaller species may even mate twice. Mating seasons occur typically during the rainy months for most bovids. As such, breeding might peak twice in the equatorial regions. The sheep and goats exhibit remarkable seasonality of reproduction, in the determination of which the annual cycle of dailyphotoperiod plays a pivotal role. Other factors that have a significant influence on this cycle include the temperature of the surroundings, nutritional status, social interactions, the date of parturition and the lactation period. A study of this phenomenon concluded that goats and sheep areshort-day breeders. Mating in most sheep breeds begins in summer or early autumn.[64] Mating in sheep is also affected by melatonin, that advances the onset of the breeding season;[65] andthyroxine, that terminates the breeding season.[66]Estrus lasts for at most a day in bovids, with the exception of bovines and tragelaphines. Except for the hartebeest and the topi, all bovids can detect estrus in females by testing the urine using thevomeronasal organ.[32] Once the male is assured that the female is in estrus, he begins courtship displays; these displays vary greatly from the elaborate marches among gregarious species to the fervent licking of female genitalia among solitary species. Females, initially not receptive, ultimately mates with the male which has achieved dominance over others. Receptiveness is expressed by permission for mounting by the male and setting aside the tail by the female.Copulation generally takes a few seconds.[32][60]
Gestational period varies among bovids - while duiker gestation ranges from 120 to 150 days, gestation in African buffalo ranges from 300 to 330 days. Usually, a single offspring is born (twins are less frequent), and it is able to stand and run by itself within an hour of birth. In monogamous species, males assist in defending their young, but that is not the case in polygynous species. Most newborn calves remain hidden for a week to two months, regularly nursed by their mothers. In some bovid species, the neonates start following about their mothers immediately or within a few days, as in the impala.[62] Different bovids have different strategies for the defence of juveniles. For instance, while wildebeest mothers solely defend their young, buffaloes exhibit collective defence. Weaning might occur as early as two months (as in royal antelope) or as late as a year (as inmuskox).[60][61]
Most wild bovids live for 10 to 15 years. Larger species tend to live longer;[3] for instance,American bison can live up to 25 years and gaur up to 30 years. The mean lifespan of domesticated individuals is nearly ten years. For example, domesticated goats have an average lifespan of 12 years.Usually males, mainly in polygynous species, have shorter lifespans than females. This can be attributed to several reasons: early dispersal of young males, aggressive male-male fights, vulnerability to predation (particularly when males are less agile, as in kudu), and malnutrition (being large in size, the male body has high nutritional requirements which may not be satisfied).[67][68]Richard Despard Estes suggested that females mimic male secondary sexual characteristics like horns to protect their male offspring from dominant males. This feature seems to have been strongly selected to prevent male mortality and imbalancedsex ratios due to attacks by aggressive males and forced dispersal of young males duringadolescence.[69]
Most of the diverse bovid species occur in Africa. The maximum concentration is in thesavannas of eastern Africa. Depending on their feeding habits, several species haveradiated over large stretches of land, and hence several variations in dental and limb morphology are observed. Duikers inhabit the equatorial rainforests,sitatunga and lechwe occur near swamps, eland inhabit grasslands,springbok and oryx occur in deserts,bongo andanoa live in dense forests, and mountain goats and takin live at high altitudes.[32] A few bovid species also occur in Europe, Asia, and North America. Sheep and goats are found primarily in Eurasia, though the Barbary sheep and the ibex form part of the African fauna. The muskox is confined to thearctic tundra. Several bovid species have been domesticated by human beings. The domestication of goats and sheep began 10 thousand years ago, while cattle were domesticated about 7.5 thousand years ago.[3][60] These domesticated species are now found across the globe, being introduced to theAmericas byEuropean colonists.
Thedomestication of bovids has contributed to shifting the dependence of human beings from hunting and gathering to agriculture. The Bovidae includes three domesticated species whose use has spread around the world: cattle, sheep, and goats; all are from Eurasia. Other large bovids that have been domesticated but which have less ubiquitous distributions include thedomestic buffalo (from thewild water buffalo),domestic yak (from thewild yak),zebu (from theIndian aurochs),gayal (from thegaur) andBali cattle (from thebanteng).[60] Some antelopes have been domesticated including theoryxes,addax,elands and the extinctbubal hartebeest. InAncient Egypt oryxes, addaxes and bubal hartebeests are depicted in carved walls.[citation needed]
The earliest evidence of cattle domestication is from 8000 BC, suggesting that the process began inCyprus and theEuphrates basin.[73]
Merino wool is the most valued, with great fineness and softness.
Dairy products such asmilk,butter,ghee,yoghurt,buttermilk andcheese are manufactured largely from domestic cattle, though the milk of sheep, goat, yak, and buffalo is also used in some parts of the world and for gourmet products. For example, buffalo milk is used to makemozzarella in Italy andgulab jamun dessert in India,[74] while sheep milk is used to make blueRoquefort cheese in France.[75]Beef is a food source high inzinc,selenium,phosphorus,iron, andB vitamins.[76] Bison meat is lower in fat and cholesterol than beef, but has a higher protein content.[77]
Bovidleather is tough and durable, with the additional advantage that it can be made into leathers of varying thicknesses - from soft clothing leather to hard shoe leather. While goat and cattle leather have a wide variety of use,sheepskin is suited only for clothing purposes.[78]Wool fromMerinohoggets is the finest and most valuable.Merino wool is 3–5 in (7.6–12.7 cm) long and very soft. Coarse wools, being durable and resistant topilling, are used for making tough garments[79] and carpets.
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^Vrba, E. S.; Burckle, L. H.; Partridge, T. C.; Denton, G. H. (1995).Paleoclimate and Evolution, with Emphasis on Human Origins. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 24–5.ISBN978-0300-063-486.
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