TheBook of Tobit (/ˈtoʊbɪt/),[a][b] a work ofSecond Temple Jewish literature, is one of thedeuterocanonical (or apocryphal) books of the Bible. It dates to the 3rd or early 2nd century BC. It emphasizes God’s testing of the faithful, His response to prayer, and His protection of the covenant people, theIsraelites.[1] The narrative follows two Israelite families: the blind Tobit inNineveh and Sarah, abandoned inEcbatana.[2] Tobit’s son Tobias is sent to recover ten silvertalents once deposited inRhages inMedia, and on his journey—guided by the angelRaphael—he meets Sarah.[2] Sarah is afflicted by the demonAsmodeus, who slays her prospective husbands, but with Raphael’s help the demon is exorcised and she marries Tobias.[1] They return together to Nineveh, where Tobit’s sight is miraculously restored.[2]
By contrast, explicit canonical rejection of Tobit byRabbinic Judaism is recorded from the 2nd century onward.Rabbi Akiva declared "The books ofSirach and all other books written from then on do not defile the hands",[27] while a contemporaryTalmudicbaraita insisted that "our Rabbis taught" the present twenty-four bookMasoretic canon.[28]Origen, though emphasizingChristian acceptance, acknowledged that "theJews do not use [it]",[29] andJerome likewise noted that theBethlehemJews had "excised" the book from their canon, relegating it to the non-canonical "agiografa", though still copying and reading it.[30] Fifteenth-centuryHebrew andAramaic manuscripts attest to its continued transmission, as does themedievalMidrash Tanhuma, which attributes a probable Tobit allusion to 11th-centuryMoshe ha-Darshan.[31]
The book is regarded asdeuterocanonical by theCatholic andEastern Orthodox churches, though it continues to be absent from theJewishMasoretic Text. The Protestant tradition similarly deems itApocrypha, useful for teaching and liturgy but notcanonical.[32][33][34][35] Most scholars see the book as a didactic folktale or novella which inserted storytelling elements into a historical context, rather than a strictly literal narrative.[36][37]
Bouguereau:Tobias Saying Good-Bye to his Father (1860)
The book has 14chapters, forming three major narrative sections framed by a prologue and epilogue:[38]
Prologue (1:1–2)
Situation in Nineveh and Ecbatana (1:3–3:17)
Tobias's journey (4:1–12:22)
Tobit's song of praise and his death (13:1–14:2)
Epilogue (14:3–15)
(Summarised from Benedikt Otzen, "Tobit and Judith").[39]
The prologue tells the reader that this is the story of Tobit of thetribe of Naphtali, deported fromTishbe inGalilee toNineveh by theAssyrians. He has always kept thelaws of Moses, and brought offerings to theTemple in Jerusalem before the catastrophe of the Assyrian conquest. The narrative highlights his marriage to Anna, and they have a son named Tobias.
Tobit, a pious man, buries dead Israelites, but one evening while he sleeps he is partially blinded by a bird which defecates in his eyes; he later becomes fully blind after physicians place ointment in his eyes.[40] He becomes dependent on his wife, but accuses her of stealing and prays for death. Meanwhile, his relative Sarah, living in far-off Ecbatana, also prays for death, for the demonAsmodeus has killed her suitors on their wedding nights and she is accused of having caused their deaths.
God hears their prayers and the archangelRaphael is sent to help them. Tobias is sent to recover money from a relative, and Raphael, in human disguise, offers to accompany him (along with Tobias'dog). On the way they catch a fish in theTigris, and Raphael tells Tobias that the burnt heart and liver can drive out demons and the gall can cure blindness. They arrive in Ecbatana and meet Sarah, and as Raphael has predicted the demon is driven out.
Tobias and Sarah are married, Tobias grows wealthy, and they return to Nineveh (Assyria) where Tobit and Anna await them. Tobit's blindness is cured, and Raphael departs after admonishing Tobit and Tobias to bless God and declare his deeds to the people (the Israelites), to pray and fast, and to give alms. Tobit praises God, who has punished his people with exile but will show them mercy and rebuild the Temple if they turn to him.
In the epilogue Tobit tells Tobias that Nineveh will be destroyed as an example of wickedness; likewise Israel will be rendered desolate and the Temple will be destroyed, but Israel and the Temple will be restored; therefore Tobias should leave Nineveh, and he and his children should live in righteousness.
Tobit is a work with some historical references, combining prayers, ethical exhortation, humour and adventure with elements drawn from folklore, wisdom tale, travel story, romance and comedy.[36][41] It offered the diaspora (the Jews in exile) guidance on how to retain Jewish identity, and its message was that God tests his people's faith, hears their prayers, and redeems the covenant community (i.e., the Jews).[41]
Tobit exists in two Greek versions, one (Sinaiticus) longer than the other (Vaticanus andAlexandrinus).[45] Aramaic and Hebrew fragments of Tobit (fourAramaic, oneHebrew – it is not clear which was the original language) found among theDead Sea Scrolls atQumran tend to align more closely with the longer or Sinaiticus version, which has formed the basis of most English translations in recent times.[45]
No scholarly consensus exists on the place of composition, but aMesopotamian origin seems logical given that the story takes place inAssyria andPersia and it mentions the Persian demon "aeshma daeva", rendered "Asmodeus". However, the story contains significant errors in geographical detail (such as the distance from Ecbatana to Rhages and their topography), and arguments against and in favor of Judean or Egyptian composition also exist.[46] The story is set in the 8th century BC, but the book itself is thought to date from between 225 and 175 BC.[47]
TheVulgate places Tobit,Judith andEsther after the historical books (afterNehemiah). Some manuscripts of the Greek version place them after the wisdom writings.[48]
Those books found in theSeptuagint but not theMasoretic Text are called thedeuterocanon, meaning "second canon".[49] Catholic and Orthodox Christianity include it in the Biblical canon. As Protestants came to follow the Masoretic canon, they therefore did not include Tobit in their canon, but do recognise it in the category of deuterocanonical books called theapocrypha.[49]
Augustine[57] (c. AD 397) andPope Innocent I[58] (AD 405) affirmed Tobit as part of the Old Testament Canon.Athanasius (AD 367) mentioned that certain other books, including the book of Tobit, while not being part of the Canon, "were appointed by the Fathers to be read".[59]
According toRufinus of Aquileia (c. AD 400) the book of Tobit and other deuterocanonical books were not called Canonical but Ecclesiastical books.[60]
Protestant traditions place the book of Tobit in an intertestamental section calledApocrypha.[32] InAnabaptism, the book of Tobit is quoted liturgically duringAmish weddings, with "the book of Tobit as the basis for the wedding sermon."[34] TheLuther Bible holds Tobit as part of the "Apocrypha, that is, books which are not held equal to the sacred Scriptures, and nevertheless are useful to read".[35]Luther's personal view was that even if it were "all made up, then it is indeed a very beautiful, wholesome and useful fiction or drama by a gifted poet" and that "this book is useful and good for us Christians to read."[36] Article VI of theThirty-Nine Articles of theChurch of England lists it as a book of the "Apocrypha".[61] The firstMethodist liturgical book,The Sunday Service of the Methodists, employs verses from Tobit in the Eucharistic liturgy.[33]Scripture readings from the Apocrypha are included in thelectionaries of the Lutheran Churches and the Anglican Churches, among other denominations using theRevised Common Lectionary, though alternate Old Testament readings are provided.[62][63] Liturgically, the Catholic and Anglican churches may use a scripture reading from the Book of Tobit in services of Holy Matrimony.[64]
Tobit contains some interesting evidence of the early evolution of the canon, referring to two rather than three divisions, the Law of Moses (i.e. thetorah) and the prophets.[65] For unknown reasons it is not included in the Masoretic text of theHebrew Bible, although four Aramaic and one Hebrew fragment were found among theDead Sea Scrolls, indicating an authoritative status among some sects.[66] Proposed explanations have included its age, literary quality, a supposed Samaritan origin, or an infringement of ritual law, in that it depicts the marriage contract between Tobias and his bride as written by her father rather than her groom.[67] Alternatively, allusions to fallen angels and its thematic connections with works such as1 Enoch andJubilees may have disqualified it from canonicity.[68] It is, however, found in the Greek text of theSeptuagint, from which it was adopted into the Christian canon by the end of the 4th century.[67]
Tobit's place in the Christian canon allowed it to influence theology, art and culture in Europe.[69] It was often dealt with by the early Church fathers, and the motif of Tobias and the fish (the fish being a symbol of Christ) was extremely popular in both art and theology;[69] this is normally calledTobias and the Angel in art. Particularly noteworthy in this connection are the works ofRembrandt, who, despite belonging to the Dutch Reformed Church, was responsible for a series of paintings and drawings illustrating episodes from the book.[69]
Scholarship onfolkloristics (for instance,Stith Thompson,Dov Noy, Heda Jason and Gédeon Huet) recognizes the Book of Tobit as containing an early incarnation of the story ofThe Grateful Dead, albeit with an angel as the hero's helper, instead of the spirit of a dead man.[70][71][72][73][74]
^From theAncient Greek:ΤωβίθTōbith orΤωβίτTōbit (Τωβείθ andΤωβείτ spellings are also attested), itself derived fromHebrew:טוביTovi meaning "my good";Book of Tobias in theVulgate from the GreekΤωβίαςTōbias, which in turn comes from the HebrewטוביהTovyah "Yah is good"
^Milik, J.T. (1966). La patrie de Tobie. Revue biblique, 73(4), 522
^Cross, F.M. (1961). The development of the Jewish scripts. In G.E. Wright (Ed.), The Bible and the ancient Near East: Essays in honor of William Foxwell Albright (p.138)
^Moore, C.A. (1996). Tobit: A new translation with introduction and commentary (Vol. 40A). Doubleday (p.46)
^Dines, J.M. (2004). The Septuagint. T&T Clark / Bloomsbury Publishing (pp. 18–19)
^Tov, E. (2012). Textual criticism of the Hebrew Bible (3rd ed., rev. & expanded). Minneapolis: Fortress Press (p.134)
^Kedar, B. (1988). The Latin translations. In M.J. Mulder (Ed.), Compendia rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum: Vol. II.1. Mikra (pp. 299-338). Fortress Press.
^Fitzmyer, J.A. (2003). Tobit. In L.T. Stuckenbruck, P. W. van der Horst, H. Lichtenberger, D. Mendels, & J. R. Mueller (Eds.), Commentaries on Early Jewish Literature (p.3)
^Tob 12:3, 8; 4:7-11 - Matt 6:1-21 Tob 4:15 - Matt 7:12
^DeSilva, D.A. (2002) Introducing the Apocrypha: Message, Context, and Significance, pp.81-2
^Daubney, Use of the Apocrpyha in the Christian Church, p.16
^Hagner, D.A. (1993) Matthew 1-13 - Word Biblical Commentary, pp.157-8
^Tosefta Yadayim, 2:13, as quoted in Leiman, S.Z. (1976). The canonization of Hebrew scripture: The Talmudic and Midrashic evidence (Vol. 47). Archon Books (p.109)
^b. Bava Batra 14b–15a, as quoted in McDonald, L.M. (2007). The Biblical Canon: Its Origin, Transmission, and Authority (3rd ed.). Baker Academic (pp.202-3)
^Gallagher, E.L. (2015). Why did Jerome Translate Tobit and Judith? The Harvard Theological Review, 108(3), 356–375
^Moore, C.A. (1996). Tobit: A new translation with introduction and commentary (Vol. 40A). Doubleday (pp.48, 64, 249-52)
^abGeisler, Norman L.; MacKenzie, Ralph E. (1995).Roman Catholics and Evangelicals: Agreements and Differences. Baker Publishing Group. p. 171.ISBN978-0-8010-3875-4.Lutherans and Anglicans used it only for ethical / devotional matters but did not consider it authoritative in matters of faith.
^abDyck, Cornelius J.; Martin, Dennis D. (1955).The Mennonite Encyclopedia: A-C. Mennonite Brethren Publishing House. p. 136.ISBN978-0-8361-1119-4.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^abKirwan, Peter (16 April 2015).Shakespeare and the Idea of Apocrypha: Negotiating the Boundaries of the Dramatic Canon. Cambridge University Press. p. 207.ISBN978-1-316-30053-4.
^"Canon XXIV. (Greek xxvii.)",The Canons of the 217 Blessed Fathers who assembled at Carthage, Christian Classics Ethereal Library,archived from the original on 2016-08-26, retrieved2016-10-19
^B. F. Westcott,A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New Testament (5th ed. Edinburgh, 1881), pp. 440, 541–2.
^Westcott, Brooke Foss (2005).A general survey of the history of the canon of the New Testament Page 570 (6th ed.). Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock.ISBN1597522392.
^Readings from the Apocrypha. Forward Movement Publications. 1981. p. 5.
^"The Revised Common Lectionary"(PDF). Consultation on Common Texts. 1992. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 1 July 2015. Retrieved19 August 2015.In all places where a reading from the deuterocanonical books (The Apocrypha) is listed, an alternate reading from the canonical Scriptures has also been provided.
^DeSilva, David Arthur (2002).Introducing the Apocrypha: Message, Context, and Significance. Baker Academic. p. 76.ISBN978-0-8010-2319-4.The author also promotes an ideology of marriage, revealed mainly in the prayer of 8:5–7 (which is an optional Old Testament reading in Catholic, Anglican, and United Methodist marriage services).
^Laura A. Hibbard,Medieval Romance in England p. 74. New York Burt Franklin, 1963.
^Huet, G. "LE CONTE DU « MORT RECONNAISSANT » ET LE LIVRE DE TOBIE." Revue De L'histoire Des Religions 71 (1915): 1-29. Accessed June 18, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/23662846.
^Jason, Heda. "Study of Israelite and Jewish Oral and Folk Literature: Problems and Issues". In:Asian Folklore Studies 49, no. 1 (1990): 88. Accessed May 18, 2021. doi:10.2307/1177950.
^Thompson, Stith (1977).The Folktale. University of California Press. p. 52.ISBN0-520-03537-2.
^Noy, Dov.Folktales of Israel. University of Chicago Press. 1963. p. 126.
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