 Bonshō atRyōan-ji – the lotus-shapedtsuki-za (striking panel) is visible at the front, and the suspended beam known as ashu-moku hangs in the background | |
| Percussion instrument | |
|---|---|
| Other names |
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| Classification | |
| Hornbostel–Sachs classification | 111.242.121 (Hanging bells without internal strikers) |
| Developed | Yamato period (based on earlier Chinese bells) |
| Related instruments | |
Bonshō (梵鐘, Buddhist bells), also known astsurigane (釣り鐘, hanging bells) orōgane (大鐘, great bells) are largebells found inBuddhist temples throughout Japan, used to summon the monks to prayer and to demarcate periods of time. Rather than containing a clapper,bonshō are struck from the outside, using either a handheld mallet or a beam suspended on ropes.
The bells are usually made from bronze, using a form ofexpendable mould casting. They are typically augmented and ornamented with a variety ofbosses, raised bands and inscriptions. The earliest of these bells in Japan date to around 600CE, although the general design is of much earlier Chinese origin and shares some of the features seen in ancient Chinese bells. The bells' penetrating and pervasive tone carries over considerable distances, which led to their use as signals, timekeepers and alarms. In addition, the sound of the bell is thought to have supernatural properties; it is believed, for example, that it can be heard inthe underworld.
The spiritual significance ofbonshō means that they play an important role in Buddhist ceremonies, particularly theNew Year andBon festivals. Throughout Japanese history these bells have become associated with stories and legends, both fictional, such as the Benkei Bell ofMii-dera, and historical, such as the bell ofHōkō-ji. In modern times,bonshō have become symbols ofworld peace.
Thebonshō is derived from thebianzhong (henshō (編鐘) in Japanese), an ancient Chinese court instrument comprising a series of tuned bells. One larger additional bell, which eventually developed into thebonshō, was used as a tuning device and a summons to listeners to attend abianzhong recital.[1] According to legend, the earliestbonshō may have come from China to Japan via the Korean Peninsula. TheNihon Shoki records thatŌtomo no Satehiko brought three bronze bells back to Japan in 562 as spoils of war fromGoguryeo.[2]
Bonshō are cast in a single piece using two moulds, a core and a shell, in a process that is largely unchanged since theNara period (710–794).[3] The core is constructed from a dome of stacked bricks made from hardened sand, whilst the shell is made using astrickle board. This is a large, flat, wooden board shaped like a cross-section of the bell, which is rotated around a vertical axis to shape the clay used for the mould. Inscriptions and decorations are then carved or impressed into the clay.[4] The shell fits over the core to create a narrow gap, into which the molten bronze is poured at a temperature of over 1,050 °C (1,920 °F). The ratio of the alloy is usually around 17:3 copper to tin; the exact admixture (as well as the speed of the cooling process) can alter the tone of the end product. After the metal has cooled and solidified, the mould is removed by breaking it, therefore a new one has to be created for each bell.[5] The process has a high failure rate; only around 50 per cent of castings are successful on the first attempt, without cracks or imperfections.[1]
The casting is traditionally accompanied by the chanting of Buddhistsutras, which may go on for several hours. Buddhist prayer papers, sprigs of sacred mulberry and other ceremonial offerings are added to the molten bronze during the founding process.[1][5][6]
There are several parts to a temple bell:[7][8]
Some bells retain linear impressions arising from joints in the mould used; they are not removed duringfettling but are regarded as an aspect of the bell's overall beauty.[4] The bell's appearance and sound are intended to be in keeping with Japan'swabi-sabi aesthetic.[3]
Japanese temple bells are struck externally with either a hammer or a suspended beam rather than with an internal clapper.[10][11] The sound of the bell is made up of three parts. First is theatari, the impact of the strike. A well-made bell should produce a clean, clear tone. The initial sound of the strike is immediately followed by the prolongedoshi, the reverberation that continues to sound after the bell is struck. This is higher in pitch and is a low rumble with a sorrowful air, rich in harmonics; it lasts for up to ten seconds. Finally comes theokuri or decay, the resonance that is heard as the vibration of the bell dies away, which can last up to a minute. There are also continuous harmonicovertones heard throughout the tolling of the bell.[1][2] These multiple tones create a complex pitch profile.[12]
The low tone and deep resonance of the bell allow the sound to carry over great distances; a largebonshō can be heard up to 32 kilometres (20 miles) away on a clear day.[1] The pitch of the bell is carefully judged by its creators, and a difference of a singlehertz in the fundamental frequency can require that the bell be recast from scratch.[5]
Bonshō are sited in Buddhist temples, usually in a specially designated building or tower called ashōrō (鐘楼). They are used to mark the passage of time,[13] and to call the monks toliturgical services.[14] In Buddhism, the bell's sound is considered to be calming and to induce a suitable atmosphere for meditation.[15] Because of their shape (with sloped shoulders and a flat base) the bells are seen as representations of the sitting Buddha, and are accorded similar respect; those striking the bell will first make three bows towards it, just as they would before a statue of Buddha.[1]
The sonorous sound of the bell was also used to warn of impending typhoons and as a general alert.[16] Because the ringing of a temple bell could be heard over considerable distances, it was also sometimes used for other signalling purposes; there are records of temple bells being used for military communication from as far back as theGenpei War (1180–1185 CE). Smaller versions were subsequently cast for battlefield use, as the large temple bells were too heavy and unwieldy to transport. These smallerbonshō were used primarily as alarms to warn of enemy attacks; commands were given usingdrums andconches.[17]
As part ofJapanese New Year celebrations, people queue to ring the temple bells 108 times in a ceremony known asJoyanokane (除夜の鐘, "New Year bells"); the 108 peals of the bell are intended to purge humanity of the108 earthly temptations.[18][19] During the BuddhistBon Festival, a special type ofbonshō called anōkubo-ōgane (大久保大鐘, "great hollow bell") is rung. This bell is hung above a well, and it is believed that the sound of the bell resonates down the well into theunderworld, to summon the spirits of the dead. At the end of the festival, anotherbonshō, called anokurikane (送り鐘, "sending-back bell"), is rung to send the spirits back and to represent the end of the summer.[1][20]
DuringWorld War II the demand for metal for the war effort resulted in many bells being melted down for scrap. As a result, those that survived are generally regarded as important historic artifacts. More than 70,000 bells (approximately 90 per cent of thebonshō then in existence) were destroyed in this way.[1][21] However, rapid production of bells during the post-war period meant that by 1995 the number of temple bells in Japan had returned to pre-war levels.[3]
In the latter half of the 20th century, theWorld Peace Bell Association was set up in Japan, with the purpose of funding and casting temple bells to be placed around the world as symbols of peace.[22][23]Bonshō have also been cast in response to natural disasters such as the2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami; several affected communities commissioned bells to commemorate the event.[3]
Bonshō have occasionally been used as musical instruments in modern compositions. The recorded sound of temple bells was used inMayuzumi Toshiro's pieceOlympic Campanology, used to open the1964 Tokyo Olympic Games.[24] A temple bell is also used in performances ofJacob Druckman's pieceLamia, in which it is rung while placed on top of akettledrum.[25] Modern composers for percussion have sometimes used the temple bell to replace the now common sound of theorchestral tam-tam.[26]
The oldest knownbonshō (and the oldest bell in the world still in use) is the Okikicho bell atMyōshin-ji, which was cast in 698.[27] The largest is the bell atChion-in, which was cast in 1636 and weighs 70 metric tons. It requires a team of 17 to sound it.[28]
During the 17th century thebonshō was also a symbol of a temple's leadership; possession of the bell indicated ownership of the associated temple. As a result, bells were often stolen; the folk heroBenkei is said to have dragged the three-ton bell ofMii-dera temple upMount Hiei during one such theft.[29][30][31] The deep scratches in the Benkei bell, which is still displayed at Mii-dera, are said in the legend to be the result of Benkei's kicking the bell all the way back to the monastery when he discovered that it would not toll for him.[32] The Benkei bell is also associated with the legendary heroTawara Tōda, who originally donated it to the Mii-dera temple. He acquired it as a gift from the dragon deityRyūjin, after saving the god from a giant centipede.[33]
After theHōkō-ji temple burned down at the start of the 17th century,Toyotomi Hideyori sponsored its reconstruction in 1610, and commissioned a large bell as part of that process. The bell's inscription drew the ire ofTokugawa Ieyasu, who had becomeshōgun after wresting power from the Toyotomi clan when Hideyori's fatherHideyoshi died. The inscription,"Kokka ankō" (国家安康, 'Peace and tranquility for the nation'), broke up the characters for the shogun's name (家康) with thekanji for "peace" (安). Tokugawa assumed Toyotomi was implying that peace would require the "dismemberment" of the Tokugawa. He used the subsequent dispute as an excuse to wage war on the Toyotomi clan, resulting in thesiege of Osaka and the eventual destruction of the Toyotomi.[34][35][36]
A bronzebonshō was among the gifts presented toCommodore Matthew Perry uponhis arrival in Japan.[37] Cast by bellmakers from the Suwa family ofHigo Province, it is now held in the collection of theSmithsonian Institution.[38]
TheNoh playDōjōji (道成寺), one of the only Noh plays to feature aprop of any significant size, is based on a legend concerning the bell ofDōjō-ji. In the story a woman namedKiyohime, the spurned mistress of a Buddhist priest named Anchin, traps her lover inside the temple's bell and then kills him by turning into a snake, coiling around the bell, and cooking him in it.[39] The play was later adapted forkabuki, entitledMusume Dōjōji (娘道成寺, "The Maiden at Dojoji Temple").[40]
The bell of theNishi-Arai Daishi Temple in Tokyo was removed in 1943, to be melted down as part of the Japanese war effort. The crew of theUSSPasadena found it on a scrap heap and took it with them to the US as a war trophy, donating it to the city ofPasadena; the city council returned the bell to Tokyo in 1955.[41] A similar story accompanies the bell ofManpuku-ji, which was taken to the United States on theUSSBoston after the war; in this case, however, theSendai authorities allowed the bell to remain inBoston as a symbol of friendship between the two cities.The Boston bell is the last WWIIbonshō in the United States.[42]
TheJapanese Peace Bell at theheadquarters of the United Nations in New York was donated by Japan in 1954 as a symbol of world peace. It was created using metal reclaimed from coins and medals provided by donors from around the globe.[43] Similar bells representing a commitment to the cause of world peace can be found in many civic areas, includingHiroshima'sPeace Memorial Park.[44] In 1995, the city ofOak Ridge, Tennessee, erected a four-ton peace bell – a replica of one of the Hiroshima bells – in the city centre as part of its fiftieth-anniversary celebrations, and to strengthen ties with Japan. The Oak Ridge Friendship Bell is decorated with dates relating to Oak Ridge's connection to Japan (theuranium used in theHiroshima atomic bomb was produced in Oak Ridge).[45] In 1998, a local citizen sued the city over the bell, claiming that it was a Buddhist symbol and violated local laws and theUS Constitution. The case was ruled in favour of the City of Oak Ridge.[46]
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