Hindi cinema, popularly known asBollywood and formerly asBombay cinema,[1] is primarily produced inMumbai. The popular term Bollywood is aportmanteau of "Bombay" (former name of Mumbai) and "Hollywood". The industry, producing films in theHindi language, is a part of the largerIndian cinema industry, which also includesSouth Indian cinema and other smallerfilm industries.[2][3][4] The term 'Bollywood', often mistakenly used to refer to Indian cinema as a whole, only refers to Hindi-language films, with Indian cinema being an umbrella term that includes all thefilm industries in the country, each offering films in diverse languages and styles.
In 2017, Indian cinema produced 1,986 feature films, of which the largest number, 364, have been in Hindi.[2] In 2022, Hindi cinema represented 33% of box office revenue, followed byTelugu andTamil representing 20% and 16% respectively.[5] Mumbai is one of the largest centres for film production in the world.[6][7][8] Hindi films sold an estimated 341 million tickets in India in 2019.[9][10] Earlier Hindi films tended to use vernacularHindustani, mutually intelligible by speakers of either Hindi orUrdu, while modern Hindi productions increasingly incorporate elements ofHinglish.[11]
The most popular commercial genre in Hindi cinema since the 1970s has been themasala film, which freely mixes different genres includingaction,comedy,romance,drama andmelodrama along withmusical numbers.[12][13] Masala films generally fall under themusical film genre, of which Indian cinema has been the largest producer since the 1960s when it exceeded the American film industry's total musical output after musical films declined in the West. The first Indiantalkie,Alam Ara (1931), was produced in theHindustani language, four years after Hollywood's first sound film,The Jazz Singer (1927).
Alongside commercial masala films, a distinctive genre ofart films known asparallel cinema has also existed, presenting realistic content and avoidance of musical numbers. In more recent years, the distinction between commercial masala and parallel cinema has been gradually blurring, with an increasing number of mainstream films adopting the conventions which were once strictly associated with parallel cinema.
"Bollywood" was probably invented in Bombay-based film trade journals in the 1960s or 1970s, though the exact inventor varies by account.[16][17] Film journalist Bevinda Collaco claims she coined the term for the title of her column inScreen magazine.[18] Her column entitled "On the Bollywood Beat" covered studio news and celebrity gossip.[18] Other sources state that lyricist, filmmaker and scholarAmit Khanna was its creator.[19] It is unknown if it was derived from "Hollywood" through "Tollywood", or was inspired directly by "Hollywood".
The term has been criticised by some film journalists and critics, who believe it implies that the industry is a poor cousin of Hollywood.[14][20]
History
Early history (1890s–1930s)
In 1897, a film presentation by Professor Stevenson featured a stage show atCalcutta's Star Theatre. With Stevenson's encouragement and camera,Hiralal Sen, an Indian photographer, made a film of scenes from that show,The Flower of Persia (1898).[21]The Wrestlers (1899) byH. S. Bhatavdekar showed awrestling match at the Hanging Gardens inBombay.[22]
Dadasaheb Phalke is considered the father of Indian cinema, including Hindi cinema.[23][24][25]
Dadasaheb Phalke'ssilent filmRaja Harishchandra (1913) is the firstfeature-length film made in India.[26] The film, being silent, hadEnglish,Marathi, andHindi-languageintertitles. By the 1930s, the Indian film industry as a whole was producing over 200 films per year.[27] The first Indian sound film,Ardeshir Irani'sAlam Ara (1931), made inHindustani language, was commercially successful.[28] With a great demand for talkies and musicals, Hindustani cinema (as Hindi cinema was then known as)[29] and the other language film industries quickly switched to sound films.
Challenges and market expansion (1930s–1940s)
The 1930s and 1940s were tumultuous times; India was buffeted by theGreat Depression,World War II, theIndian independence movement, and the violence of thePartition. Although most early Bombay films were unabashedlyescapist, a number of filmmakers tackled tough social issues or used the struggle for Indian independence as a backdrop for their films.[30] Irani made the firstHindi colour film,Kisan Kanya, in 1937. The following year, he made a colour version ofMother India. However, colour did not become a popular feature until the late 1950s. At this time, lavish romantic musicals and melodramas were cinematic staples.
Number of Hindi movies released since 1930. A rapid expansion was seen from the mid-1940s.
The decade of the 1940s saw an expansion of Bombay cinema's commercial market and its presence in the national consciousness. The year 1943 saw the arrival of Indian cinema's first 'blockbuster' offering, the movieKismet, which grossed in excess of the important barrier of onecrore (10 million) rupees, made on a budget of only twolakh (200,000) rupees.[31] The film tackled contemporary issues, especially those arising from the Indian Independence movement, and went on to become "the longest running hit of Indian cinema", a title it held till the 1970s.[32] Film personalities like Bimal Roy, Sahir Ludhianvi and Prithviraj Kapoor participated in the creation of a national movement against colonial rule in India, while simultaneously leveraging the popular political movement to increase their own visibility and popularity.[33][34] Themes from the Independence Movement deeply influenced Bombay film directors, screen-play writers, and lyricists, who saw their films in the context of social reform and the problems of the common people.[35]
The 1947 partition of India divided the country into theRepublic of India andPakistan, which precipitated the migration of filmmaking talent from film production centres likeLahore andCalcutta, which bore the brunt of the partition violence.[36][39][38] This included actors, filmmakers and musicians fromBengal,Punjab (particularly the present-dayPakistani Punjab),[36] and theNorth-West Frontier Province (present-dayKhyber Pakhtunkhwa).[40] These events further consolidated the Bombay film industry's position as the preeminent center for film production in India.
Golden age (late 1940s–1960s)
The period from the late 1940s to the early 1960s, afterIndia's independence, is regarded by film historians as the Golden Age of Hindi cinema.[41][42][43] Some of the most critically acclaimed Hindi films of all time were produced during this time. Examples includePyaasa (1957) andKaagaz Ke Phool (1959), directed byGuru Dutt and written byAbrar Alvi;Awaara (1951) andShree 420 (1955), directed byRaj Kapoor and written byKhwaja Ahmad Abbas, andAan (1952), directed byMehboob Khan and starringDilip Kumar. The films explored social themes, primarily dealing with working-class life in India (particularly urban life) in the first two examples.Awaara presented the city as both nightmare and dream, andPyaasa critiqued the unreality of urban life.[44]
Rajesh Khanna in 2010. The first Indian actor to be called a "superstar", he starred in 15 consecutive hit films from 1969 to 1971.
After the social-realist filmNeecha Nagar received thePalme d'Or at the inaugural1946 Cannes Film Festival,[56] Hindi films were frequently in competition for Cannes' top prize during the 1950s and early 1960s and some won major prizes at the festival.[58]Guru Dutt, overlooked during his lifetime, received belated international recognition during the 1980s.[58][59] Film critics polled by the British magazineSight & Sound included several of Dutt's films in a 2002 list ofgreatest films,[60] andTime's All-Time 100 Movies listsPyaasa as one of the greatest films of all time.[61]
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, the industry was dominated by musicalromance films with romantic-hero leads.[62]
By the mid-1970s, romantic confections had given way to gritty, violent crime films andaction films about gangsters (theBombay underworld) and bandits (dacoits). Salim-Javed's writing and Amitabh Bachchan's acting popularised the trend with films such asZanjeer and (particularly)Deewaar, a crime film inspired byGunga Jumna[50] which pitted "a policeman against his brother, a gang leader based on real-life smugglerHaji Mastan" (Bachchan); according toDanny Boyle,Deewaar was "absolutely key to Indian cinema".[72] In addition to Bachchan, several other actors followed by riding the crest of the trend (which lasted into the early 1990s).[73] Actresses from the era includeHema Malini,Jaya Bachchan,Raakhee,Shabana Azmi,Zeenat Aman,Parveen Babi,Rekha,Dimple Kapadia,Smita Patil,Jaya Prada andPadmini Kolhapure.[54]
The name "Bollywood" was coined during the 1970s,[17][18] when the conventions of commercial Hindi films were defined.[74] Key to this was themasala film, which combines a number of genres (action,comedy,romance,drama,melodrama, andmusical). The masala film was pioneered early in the decade by filmmakerNasir Hussain,[75] and the Salim-Javed screenwriting duo,[74] pioneering the Bollywood-blockbuster format.[74]Yaadon Ki Baarat (1973), directed by Hussain and written by Salim-Javed, has been identified as the first masala film and the first quintessentially "Bollywood" film.[74][76] Salim-Javed wrote more successful masala films during the 1970s and 1980s.[74] Masala films made Amitabh Bachchan the biggest star of the period. A landmark of the genre wasAmar Akbar Anthony (1977),[76][77] directed byManmohan Desai and written byKader Khan, and Desai continued successfully exploiting the genre.
By 1983, the Bombay film industry was generating an estimated annual revenue of₹700crore (₹ 7 billion,[80]$693.14 million),[81] equivalent to$2.19 billion (₹12,667 crore,₹ 111.33 billion) when adjusted for inflation. By 1986, India's annual film output had increased from 741 films produced annually to 833 films annually, making India the world's largest film producer.[82] The most internationally acclaimed Hindi film of the 1980s wasMira Nair'sSalaam Bombay! (1988), which won theCamera d'Or at the1988 Cannes Film Festival and was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
Hindi cinema experienced another period of box-office decline during the late 1980s with due to concerns by audiences over increasing violence and a decline in musical quality, and a rise in video piracy. One of the turning points came with such films asQayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988), presenting a blend of youthfulness, family entertainment,emotional intelligence and strong melodies, all of which lured audiences back to the big screen.[83][84] It brought back the template for Bollywood musical romance films which went on to define 1990s Hindi cinema.[84]
The decade marked the entrance of new performers inart and independent films, some of which were commercially successful. The most influential example wasSatya (1998), directed byRam Gopal Varma and written byAnurag Kashyap. Its critical and commercial success led to the emergence of a genre known asMumbai noir:[93] urban films reflecting the city's social problems.[94] This led to a resurgence ofparallel cinema by the end of the decade.[93] The films featured actors whose performances were often praised by critics.
During the 2010s, the industry saw established stars such as making big-budgetmasala films likeDabangg (2010),Singham (2011),Ek Tha Tiger (2012),Son of Sardaar (2012),Rowdy Rathore (2012),Chennai Express (2013),Kick (2014) andHappy New Year (2014) with much-younger actresses. Although the films were often not praised by critics, they were commercially successful. Some of the films starring Aamir Khan, fromTaare Zameen Par (2007) and3 Idiots (2009) toDangal (2016) andSecret Superstar (2018), have been credited with redefining and modernising the masala film with a distinct brand of socially conscious cinema.[96][97]
Most stars from the 2000s continued successful careers into the next decade,[citation needed] and the 2010s saw a new generation of popular actors in different films. Among new conventions, female-centred films such asThe Dirty Picture (2011),Kahaani (2012), andQueen (2014),Pink (2016),Raazi (2018),Gangubai Kathiawadi (2022) andCrew started gaining wide financial success.[98]
Influences on Hindi cinema
Moti Gokulsing andWimal Dissanayake identify six major influences which have shaped Indian popular cinema:[99]
The branching structures of ancientIndian epics, like theMahabharata andRamayana. Indian popular films often have plots which branch off into sub-plots.
AncientSanskrit drama, with its stylised nature and emphasis on spectacle in whichmusic,dance and gesture combine "to create a vibrant artistic unit with dance and mime being central to the dramatic experience." Matthew Jones ofDe Montfort University also identifies the Sanskrit concept ofrasa, or "the emotions felt by the audience as a result of the actor's presentation", as crucial to Bollywood films.[100]
Parsi theatre, which "blended realism and fantasy, music and dance, narrative and spectacle, earthy dialogue and ingenuity of stage presentation, integrating them into a dramatic discourse ofmelodrama. The Parsi plays contained crude humour, melodious songs and music, sensationalism and dazzling stagecraft."
Hollywood, where musicals were popular from the 1920s to the 1950s.
Western musical television (particularlyMTV), which has had an increasing influence since the 1990s. Its pace, camera angles, dance sequences and music may be seen in 2000s Indian films. An early example of this approach wasMani Ratnam'sBombay (1995).
Sharmistha Gooptu identifiesIndo-Persian-Islamic culture as a major influence. During the early 20th century,Urdu was thelingua franca of popular cultural performance across northern India and established in popularperformance art traditions such asnautch dancing,Urdu poetry, and Parsi theater. Urdu and relatedHindi dialects were the most widely understood across northern India, and Hindustani became the standard language of early Indian talkies. Films based on "Persianate adventure-romances" led to a popular genre of "Arabian Nights cinema".[101]
Perhaps Hindi cinema's greatest influence has been on India's national identity, where (with the rest of Indian cinema) it has become part of the "Indian story".[111] In India, Bollywood is often associated with India's national identity. According to economist and Bollywood biographerMeghnad Desai, "Cinema actually has been the most vibrant medium for telling India its own story, the story of its struggle for independence, its constant struggle to achieve national integration and to emerge as a global presence".[111]
Scholar Brigitte Schulze has written that Indian films, most notablyMehboob Khan'sMother India (1957), played a key role in shaping theRepublic of India's national identity in the early years afterindependence from theBritish Raj; the film conveyed a sense ofIndian nationalism to urban and rural citizens alike.[112] Bollywood has long influenced Indian society and culture as the biggest entertainment industry; many of the country's musical, dancing, wedding and fashion trends are Bollywood-inspired. Bollywood fashion trendsetters have includedMadhubala inMughal-e-Azam (1960) andMadhuri Dixit inHum Aapke Hain Koun..! (1994).[87]
Hindi films have also had asocio-political impact on Indian society, reflectingIndian politics.[113] In classic 1970s Bollywood films, Bombay underworld crime films written bySalim–Javed and starringAmitabh Bachchan such asZanjeer (1973) andDeewaar (1975) reflected thesocio-economic and socio-political realities of contemporary India. They channeled growing popular discontent and disillusionment and state failure to ensure welfare and well-being at a time of inflation, shortages, loss of confidence in public institutions, increasing crime[65] and the unprecedented growth ofslums.[69] Salim-Javed and Bachchan's films dealt with urban poverty, corruption and organised crime;[70] they were perceived by audiences asanti-establishment, often with an "angry young man" protagonist presented as avigilante oranti-hero[71] whose suppressed rage voiced the anguish of the urban poor.[69]
Overseas
Hindi films have been a significant form ofsoft power for India, increasing its influence and changing overseas perceptions of India.[114][115] InGermany,Indian stereotypes includedbullock carts, beggars, sacred cows, corrupt politicians, and catastrophes before Bollywood and theIT industry transformed global perceptions of India.[116] According to author Roopa Swaminathan, "Bollywood cinema is one of the strongest global cultural ambassadors of a new India."[115][117] Its role in expanding India's global influence is comparable to Hollywood's similar role with American influence.[87]Monroe Township,Middlesex County,New Jersey, inthe New York metropolitan area, has been profoundly impacted by Bollywood; this U.S. township has displayed one of the fastest growth rates of its Indian population in theWestern Hemisphere, increasing from 256 (0.9%) as of the 2000 Census[118] to an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017,[119] representing a 2,221.5% (a multiple of 23) numerical increase over that period, including manyaffluentprofessionals andsenior citizens as well ascharitable benefactors to theCOVID-19 relief efforts in India in official coordination with Monroe Township, as well as actors with second homes.
During the 2000s, Hindi cinema began influencingmusical films in the Western world and was instrumental role in reviving the American musical film.Baz Luhrmann said that his musical film,Moulin Rouge! (2001), was inspired by Bollywood musicals;[120] the film incorporated a Bollywood-style dance scene with a song from the filmChina Gate. The critical and financial success ofMoulin Rouge! began a renaissance of Western musical films such asChicago,Rent, andDreamgirls.[121]
Melodrama and romance are common ingredients in Bollywood films, such asAchhut Kanya (1936)
Hindi films are primarily musicals, and are expected to have catchy song-and-dance numbers woven into the script. A film's success often depends on the quality of such musical numbers.[134] A film's music and song and dance portions are usually produced first and these are often released before the film itself, increasing its audience.[135]
Indian audiences expect value for money, and a good film is generally referred to aspaisa vasool, (literally "money's worth").[136] Songs, dances, love triangles, comedy and dare-devil thrills are combined in a three-hour show (with an intermission). These are calledmasala films, after the Hindi word for a spice mixture. Likemasalas, they are a mixture of action, comedy and romance; most have heroes who can fight off villains single-handedly. Bollywood plots have tended to bemelodramatic, frequently using formulaic ingredients such as star-crossed lovers, angry parents, love triangles, family ties, sacrifice, political corruption, kidnapping, villains,kind-hearted courtesans, long-lost relatives and siblings, reversals of fortune andserendipity.
Parallel cinema films tended to be less popular at the box office. A large Indian diaspora in English-speaking countries and increasedWestern influence in India have nudged Bollywood films closer to Hollywood.[137]
According to film critic Lata Khubchandani, "Our earliest films ... had liberal doses of sex and kissing scenes in them. Strangely, it was after Independence the censor board came into being and so did all the strictures."[138] Although Bollywood plots feature Westernised urbanites dating and dancing in clubs rather than pre-arranged marriages, traditional Indian culture continues to exist outside the industry and is an element of resistance by some to Western influences.[137] Bollywood plays a major role, however, inIndian fashion.[137] Studies have indicated that some people, unaware that changing fashion in Bollywood films is often influenced by globalisation, consider the clothes worn by Bollywood actors as authentically Indian.[137]
Film scripts (known as dialogues inIndian English) and their song lyrics are often written by different people. Earlier, scripts were usually written in an unadornedHindustani, which would be understood by the largest possible audience.[139] Post-Independence, Hindi films tended to use acolloquial register of Hindustani, mutually intelligible byHindi andUrdu speakers, but the use of the latter has declined over years.[11][140] Some films have usedregional dialects to evoke a village setting, or archaic Urdu inmedievalhistorical films. A number of the dominant early scriptwriters of Hindi cinema primarily wrote in Urdu; Salim-Javed wrote inUrdu script, which was then transcribed by an assistant intoDevanagari script so Hindi readers could read them.[102] During the 1970s, Urdu writersKrishan Chander andIsmat Chughtai said that "more than seventy-five per cent of films are made in Urdu" but were categorised as Hindi films by the government.[141]Encyclopedia of Hindi Cinema noted a number of top Urdu writers for preserving the language through film.[142]Urdu poetry has strongly influencedHindi film songs, whose lyrics also draw from theghazal tradition (filmi-ghazal).[104] According to Javed Akhtar in 1996, despite the loss of Urdu in Indian society, Urdudiction dominated Hindi film dialogue and lyrics.[143]
In her book,The Cinematic ImagiNation, Jyotika Virdi wrote about the presence and decline of Urdu in Hindi films. Virdi notes that although Urdu was widely used in classic Hindi cinema decades after partition because it was widely taught in pre-partition India, its use has declined in modern Hindi cinema: "The extent of Urdu used in commercial Hindi cinema has not been stable ... the ultimate victory of Hindi in the official sphere has been more or less complete. This decline of Urdu is mirrored in Hindi films ... It is true that many Urdu words have survived and have become part of Hindi cinema's popular vocabulary. But that is as far as it goes. The fact is, for the most part, popular Hindi cinema has forsaken the florid Urdu that was part of its extravagance and retained a 'residual' Urdu", affected by an aggressive state policy that promoted a Sanskritized version of Hindi as the national language."[144]
Contemporary mainstream films also use English; according to the article "Bollywood Audiences Editorial", "English has begun to challenge the ideological work done by Urdu."[11][145] Some film scripts are first written inLatin script.[146] Characters may shift from one language to the other to evoke a particular atmosphere (for example, English in a business setting and Hindi in an informal one). The blend of Hindi and English sometimes heard in modern Hindi films, known asHinglish, has become increasingly common.[140]
For years before the turn of the millennium and even after, cinematic language (in dialogues or lyrics) would often be melodramatic, invoking God, family, mother, duty, and self-sacrifice. Song lyrics are often about love and, especially in older films, frequently used the poetic vocabulary of court Urdu, with a number ofPersian loanwords.[12] Another source for love lyrics in films such asJhanak Jhanak Payal Baje andLagaan is the longHindu tradition of poetry about the loves ofKrishna,Radha, and thegopis.
Music directors often prefer working with certain lyricists, and the lyricist and composer may be seen as a team. This phenomenon has been compared to the pairs of American composers and songwriters who created classic Broadway musicals.
In 2008 and before, Bollywood scripts were oftenhandwritten because, in the industry, there is a perception that manual writing is the quickest way to create scripts.[147]
Sound in early Bollywood films was usually not recorded on location (sync sound). It was usually created (or re-created) in the studio,[148] with the actorsspeaking their lines in the studio andsound effects added later; this created synchronisation problems.[148] Commercial Indian films are known for their lack of ambient sound, and theArriflex 3 camera necessitated dubbing.Lagaan (2001) was filmed with sync sound,[148] and several Bollywood films have recorded on-location sound since then.
Female makeup artists
In 1955, the Bollywood Cine Costume Make-Up Artist & Hair Dressers' Association (CCMAA) ruled that female makeup artists were barred from membership.[149] TheSupreme Court of India ruled in 2014 that the ban violated Indian constitutional guarantees under Article 14 (right to equality), 19(1)(g) (freedom to work) and Article 21 (right to liberty).[149] According to the court, the ban had no "rationale nexus" to the cause sought to be achieved and was "unacceptable, impermissible and inconsistent" with the constitutional rights guaranteed to India's citizens.[149] The court also found illegal the rule which mandated that for any artist to work in the industry, they must have lived for five years in the state where they intend to work.[149] In 2015, it was announced that Charu Khurana was the first woman registered by the Cine Costume Make-Up Artist & Hair Dressers' Association.[150]
Song and dance
Group of Bollywood singers at the 2015 Indian Singers' Rights Association (ISRA) meetingBollywood dance performance by college students
Bollywood film music is calledfilmi (from the Hindi "of films"). Bollywood songs were introduced with Ardeshir Irani'sAlam Ara (1931) song, "De De Khuda Ke Naam pay pyaare".[151] Bollywood songs are generally pre-recorded by professional playback singers, with the actors thenlip syncing the words to the song on-screen (often while dancing). Although most actors are good dancers, few are also singers; a notable exception wasKishore Kumar, who starred in several major films during the 1950s while having a rewarding career as a playback singer.K. L. Saigal, Suraiyya, andNoor Jehan were known as singers and actors, and some actors in the last thirty years have sung one or more songs themselves.
Songs can make and break a film, determining whether it will be a flop or a hit: "Few films without successful musical tracks, and even fewer without any songs and dances, succeed".[152] Globalization has changed Bollywood music, with lyrics an increasing mix of Hindi and English. Global trends such as salsa, pop and hip hop have influenced the music heard in Bollywood films.[152]
Dancing in Bollywood films, especially older films, is modeled on Indian dance: classical dance, dances of north-Indian courtesans (tawaif) orfolk dances. In modern films, Indian dance blends with Western dance styles as seen on MTV or in Broadway musicals; Western pop and classical-dance numbers are commonly seen side-by-side in the same film. The hero (or heroine) often performs with a troupe of supporting dancers. Many song-and-dance routines in Indian films contain unrealistically-quick shifts of location or changes of costume between verses of a song. If the hero and heroine dance and sing a duet, it is often staged in natural surroundings or architecturally-grand settings.
Songs typically comment on the action taking place in the film. A song may be worked into the plot, so a character has a reason to sing. It may externalise a character's thoughts, or presage an event in the film (such as two characters falling in love). The songs are often referred to as a "dream sequence", with things happening which would not normally happen in the real world. Song and dance scenes were often filmed inKashmir but, due to political unrest in Kashmir since the end of the 1980s,[153] they have been shot in western Europe (particularlySwitzerland andAustria).[154][155]
Film producers have been releasing soundtracks (as tapes or CDs) before a film's release, hoping that the music will attract audiences; a soundtrack is often more popular than its film. Some producers also release music videos, usually (but not always) with a song from the film.
Finances
Bollywood films are multi-million dollar productions, with the most expensive productions costing up to₹ 1 billion (about US$20 million). The science-fiction filmRa.One was made on a budget of₹ 1.35 billion (about $27 million), making it the most expensive Bollywood film of all time.[162]Sets, costumes, special effects andcinematography were less than world-class, with some notable exceptions, until the mid-to-late 1990s. As Western films and television are more widely distributed in India, there is increased pressure for Bollywood films to reach the same production levels (particularly in action and special effects). Recent Bollywood films, likeKrrish (2006), have employed international technicians such as Hong Kong-based action choreographerTony Ching. The increasing accessibility of professional action and special effects, coupled with rising film budgets, have seen an increase in action and science-fiction films.
Since overseas scenes are attractive at the box office, Mumbai film crews are filming in Australia, Canada,New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States,Europe and elsewhere. Indian producers have also obtained funding for big-budget films shot in India, such asLagaan andDevdas.
Funding for Bollywood films often comes from private distributors and a few largestudios. Although Indian banks and financial institutions had been forbidden from lending to film studios, the ban has been lifted.[163] Finances are not regulated; some funding comes from illegitimate sources such as the Mumbai underworld, which is known to influence several prominent film personalities. Mumbai organised-crime hitmen shotRakesh Roshan, a film director and father of starHrithik Roshan, in January 2000. In 2001, theCentral Bureau of Investigation seized all prints ofChori Chori Chupke Chupke after the film was found to be funded by members of the Mumbai underworld.[164]
Another problem facing Bollywood is widespreadcopyright infringement of its films. Often, bootlegDVD copies of movies are available before they are released in cinemas. Manufacturing of bootleg DVD, VCD, and VHS copies of the latest movie titles is an established small-scale industry in parts of south andsoutheast Asia. The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) estimates that the Bollywood industry loses $100 million annually from unlicensed home videos and DVDs. In addition to the homegrown market, demand for these copies is large amongst portions of theIndian diaspora. Bootleg copies are the only way people in Pakistan can watch Bollywood movies, since the Pakistani government has banned their sale, distribution and telecast. Films are frequently broadcast without compensation by small cable-TV companies in India and other parts of South Asia. Small convenience stores, run by members of the Indian diaspora in the US and the UK, regularly stock tapes and DVDs of dubious provenance; consumer copying adds to the problem. The availability of illegal copies of movies on the Internet also contributes to industry losses.
Satellite TV, television and imported foreign films are making inroads into the domestic Indian entertainment market. In the past, most Bollywood films could make money; now, fewer do. Most Bollywood producers make money, however, recouping their investments from many sources of revenue (including the sale of ancillary rights). There are increasing returns from theatres in Western countries like the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States, where Bollywood is slowly being noticed. As more Indians migrate to these countries, they form a growing market for upscale Indian films. In 2002, Bollywood sold 3.6 billion tickets and had a total revenue (including theatre tickets, DVDs and television) of $1.3 billion; Hollywood films sold 2.6 billion tickets, and had a total revenue of $51 billion.
Advertising
A number of Indian artists hand-painted movie billboards and posters.M. F. Husain painted film posters early in his career; human labour was found to be cheaper than printing and distributing publicity material.[165] Most of the large, ubiquitous billboards in India's major cities are now created with computer-printed vinyl. Old hand-painted posters, once consideredephemera, are collectiblefolk art.[165][166][167][168]
Releasing film music, or music videos, before a film's release may be considered a form of advertising. A popular tune is believed to help attract audiences.[169] Bollywood publicists use the Internet as a venue for advertising. Most bigger-budget films have a websites on which audiences can view trailers, stills and information on the story, cast, and crew.[170] Bollywood is also used to advertise other products.Product placement, used in Hollywood, is also common in Bollywood.[171]
Bollywood's increasing use of international settings such as Switzerland, London, Paris, New York, Mexico, Brazil and Singapore does not necessarily represent the people and cultures of those locales. Contrary to these spaces and geographies being filmed as they are, they are actually Indianised by adding Bollywood actors and Hindi speaking extras to them. While immersing in Bollywood films, viewers get to see their local experiences duplicated in different locations around the world.
According to Shakuntala Rao, "Media representation can depict India's shifting relation with the world economy, but must retain its 'Indianness' in moments of dynamic hybridity";[152] "Indianness" (cultural identity) poses a problem with Bollywood's popularity among varied diaspora audiences, but gives its domestic audience a sense of uniqueness from other immigrant groups.[172]
Awards
TheFilmfare Awards are some of the most prominent awards given to Hindi films in India.[173] The Indian screen magazineFilmfare began the awards in 1954 (recognising the best films of 1953), and they were originally known as the Clare Awards after the magazine's editor. Modeled on theAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences' poll-based merit format, individuals may vote in separate categories. A dual voting system was developed in 1956.[174]
TheNational Film Awards were also introduced in 1954. The Indian government has sponsored the awards, given by itsDirectorate of Film Festivals (DFF), since 1973. The DFF screens Bollywood films, films from the other regional movie industries, and independent/art films. The awards are made at an annual ceremony presided over by the president of India. Unlike the Filmfare Awards, which are chosen by the public and a committee of experts, the National Film Awards are decided by a government panel.[175]
In addition to their popularity among the Indian diaspora fromNigeria andSenegal toEgypt andRussia, generations of non-Indians have grown up with Bollywood.[176] Indian cinema's early contacts with other regions made inroads into theSoviet Union, theMiddle East,Southeast Asia,[177] andChina.[citation needed] Bollywood entered the consciousness of Western audiences and producers during the late 20th century,[95][178] and Western actors now seek roles in Bollywood films.[179]
Asia-Pacific
South Asia
Bollywood films are also popular in Pakistan,Bangladesh, andNepal, where Hindustani is widely understood. Many Pakistanis understand Hindi, due to its linguistic similarity toUrdu.[180] Although Pakistan banned the import of Bollywood films in 1965, trade in unlicensed DVDs[181] and illegal cable broadcasts ensured their continued popularity. Exceptions to the ban were made for a few films, such as the colourised re-release ofMughal-e-Azam andTaj Mahal in 2006. Early in 2008, the Pakistani government permitted the import of 16 films.[182] More easing followed in 2009 and 2010. Although it is opposed by nationalists and representatives of Pakistan's small film industry, it is embraced by cinema owners who are making a profit after years of low receipts.[183] The most popular actors in Pakistan are the threeKhans of Bollywood:Salman,Shah Rukh, andAamir. The most popular actress isMadhuri Dixit;[184] atIndia-Pakistan cricket matches during the 1990s, Pakistani fans chanted "Madhuri dedo, Kashmir lelo!" ("Give Madhuri, takeKashmir!")[185] Bollywood films in Nepal earn more thanNepali films, and Salman Khan,Akshay Kumar and Shah Rukh Khan are popular in the country.
India hascultural ties with Indonesia, and Bollywood films were introduced to the country at the end ofWorld War II in 1945. The "angry young man" films ofAmitabh Bachchan andSalim–Javed were popular during the 1970s and 1980s before Bollywood's popularity began gradually declining in the 1980s and 1990s. It experienced an Indonesian revival with the release of Shah Rukh Khan'sKuch Kuch Hota Hai (1998) in 2001, which was a bigger box-office success in the country thanTitanic (1997). Bollywood has had a strong presence in Indonesia since then, particularly Shah Rukh Khan films such asMohabbatein (2000),Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001),Kal Ho Naa Ho,Chalte Chalte andKoi... Mil Gaya (all 2003), andVeer-Zaara (2004).[190]
When3 Idiots was released in China, China was theworld's 15th-largest film market (partly due to its widespread pirateDVD distribution at the time). The pirate market introduced the film to Chinese audiences, however, and it became acult hit. According to theDouban film-review site,3 Idiots is China's 12th-most-popular film of all time; only one domestic Chinese film (Farewell My Concubine) ranks higher, andAamir Khan acquired a large Chinese fan base as a result.[199] After3 Idiots, several of Khan's other films (including 2007'sTaare Zameen Par and 2008'sGhajini) also developed cult followings.[202] China became the world's second-largest film market (after the United States) by 2013, paving the way for Khan's box-office success withDhoom 3 (2013),PK (2014), andDangal (2016).[199] The latter is the16th-highest-grossing film in China,[203] the fifth-highest-grossing non-English language film worldwide,[204] and the highest-grossing non-English foreign film in any market.[205][206][207] Several Khan films, includingTaare Zameen Par,3 Idiots, andDangal, are highly rated on Douban.[208][209] His next film,Secret Superstar (2017, starringZaira Wasim), brokeDangal's record for the highest-grossing opening weekend by an Indian film and cemented Khan's status[210] as "a king of the Chinese box office";[211]Secret Superstar was China's highest-grossing foreign film of 2018 to date.[212] Khan has become a household name in China,[213] with his success described as a form of Indiansoft power[214] improvingChina–India relations despite political tensions.[197][210] With Bollywood competing with Hollywood in the Chinese market,[215] the success of Khan's films has driven up the price for Chinese distributors of Indian film imports.[216]Salman Khan'sBajrangi Bhaijaan andIrrfan Khan'sHindi Medium were also Chinese hits in early 2018.[217]
Oceania
Although Bollywood is less successful on some Pacific islands such asNew Guinea, it ranks second to Hollywood inFiji (with its large Indian minority),Australia andNew Zealand.[218] Australia also has a large South Asian diaspora, and Bollywood is popular amongst non-Asians in the country as well.[218] Since 1997, the country has been a backdrop for an increasing number of Bollywood films.[218] Indian filmmakers, attracted to Australia's diverse locations and landscapes, initially used the country as a setting for song-and-dance scenes;[218] however, Australian locations now figure in Bollywood film plots.[218] Hindi films shot in Australia usually incorporate Australian culture.Yash Raj Films'Salaam Namaste (2005), the first Indian film shot entirely in Australia, was the most successful Bollywood film of 2005 in that country.[219] It was followed by the box-office successesHeyy Babyy, (2007)Chak De! India (2007), andSingh Is Kinng (2008).[218] Prime MinisterJohn Howard said during a visit to India after the release ofSalaam Namaste that he wanted to encourage Indian filmmaking in Australia to increase tourism, and he appointedSteve Waugh as tourism ambassador to India.[220][failed verification] Australian actressTania Zaetta, who appeared inSalaam Namaste and several other Bollywood films, was eager to expand her career in Bollywood.[221]
The popularity of Bollywood in the CIS dates back to the Soviet days when the films fromHollywood and other Western cinema centers were banned in the Soviet Union. As there was no means of other cheap entertainment, the films from Bollywood provided the Soviets a cheap source of entertainment as they were supposed to be non-controversial and non-political. In addition, the Soviet Union was recovering from the onslaught of the Second World War. The films from India, which were also recovering from the disaster of partition and the struggle for freedom from colonial rule, were found to be a good source of providing hope with entertainment to the struggling masses. The aspirations and needs of the people of both countries matched to a great extent. These films were dubbed in Russian and shown in theatres throughout the Soviet Union. The films from Bollywood also strengthened family values, which was a big factor for their popularity with the government authorities in the Soviet Union.[234]
After the collapse of the Soviet film-distribution system, Hollywood filled the void in the Russian film market and Bollywood's market share shrank.[222]
Hindi films have become popular inArab countries,[238]and imported Indian films are usually subtitled in Arabic when they are released. Bollywood has progressed inIsrael since the early 2000s, with channels dedicated to Indian films on cable television;[239]MBC Bollywood andZee Aflam show Hindi movies and serials.[240]
In Egypt, Bollywood films were popular during the 1970s and 1980s. In 1987, however, they were restricted to a handful of films by theEgyptian government.[241][242]Amitabh Bachchan has remained popular in the country[243] and Indian tourists visiting Egypt are asked, "Do you know Amitabh Bachchan?"[184]
Bollywood movies are regularly screened in Dubai cinemas, and Bollywood is becoming popular in Turkey;Barfi! was the first Hindi film to have a wide theatrical release in that country.[244] Bollywood also has viewers in Central Asia (particularlyUzbekistan[245] andTajikistan).[246]
South America
Bollywood films are not influential in most of South America, although its culture and dance is recognised. Due to significant South Asian diaspora communities inSuriname andGuyana, however, Hindi-language movies are popular.[247] In 2006,Dhoom 2 became the first Bollywood film to be shot inRio de Janeiro.[248] In January 2012, it was announced that UTV Motion Pictures would begin releasing films inPeru withGuzaarish.[249]
Africa
Hindi films were originally distributed to some parts of Africa byLebanese businessmen.[176] In the 1950s, Hindi andEgyptian films were generally more popular than Hollywood films inEast Africa. By the 1960s, East Africa was one of the largest overseas export markets for Indian films, accounting for about 20-50% of global earnings for many Indian films.[250]
Mother India (1957) continued to be screened inNigeria decades after its release. Indian movies have influencedHausa clothing, songs have been covered by Hausa singers, and stories have influenced Nigerian novelists. Stickers of Indian films and stars decorate taxis and buses in Nigeria'sNorthern Region, and posters of Indian films hang on the walls of tailoring shops and mechanics' garages. Unlike Europe and North America, where Indian films cater to the expatriate market, Bollywood films became popular in West Africa despite the lack of a significant Indian audience. One possible explanation is cultural similarity: the wearing of turbans, animals in markets; porters carrying large bundles, and traditional wedding celebrations. Within Muslim culture, Indian movies were said to show "respect" toward women; Hollywood movies were seen as having "no shame". In Indian movies, women are modestly dressed; men and women rarely kiss and there is nonudity, so the films are said to "have culture" which Hollywood lacks. The latter "don't base themselves on the problems of the people"; Indian films are based on socialist values and the reality of developing countries emerging from years of colonialism. Indian movies permitted a new youth culture without "becoming Western."[176] The first Indian film shot in Mauritius wasSouten, starringRajesh Khanna, in 1983.[251]
InSouth Africa, film imports from India were watched by black andIndian audiences.[252] Several Bollywood figures have travelled to Africa for films and off-camera projects.Padmashree Laloo Prasad Yadav (2005) was filmed in South Africa.[253]Dil Jo Bhi Kahey... (2005) was also filmed almost entirely inMauritius, which has a large ethnic-Indian population.
Bollywood, however, seems to be diminishing in popularity in Africa. New Bollywood films are more sexually explicit and violent. Nigerian viewers observed that older films (from the 1950s and 1960s) had more culture and were less Westernised.[176] The old days of India avidly "advocating decolonization ... and India's policy was wholly influenced by his missionary zeal to end racial domination and discrimination in the African territories" were replaced.[254] The emergence ofNollywood (West Africa's film industry) has also contributed to the declining popularity of Bollywood films, as sexualised Indian films became more like American films.
Many Bollywood films have been commercially successful in the United Kingdom. The most successful Indian actor at the British box office has beenShah Rukh Khan, whose popularity inBritish Asian communities played a key role in introducing Bollywood to the UK[262] with films such asDarr (1993),[263]Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge (1995),[264] andKuch Kuch Hota Hai (1998).[262]Dil Se (1998) was the first Indian film to enter the UK top ten.[262] A number of Indian films, such asDilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge andKabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham (2001), have been set in London.
Bollywood is also appreciated in France,Germany, theNetherlands,[265] andScandinavia. Bollywood films are dubbed inGerman and shown regularly on the German television channelRTL II.[266] Germany is the second-largest European market for Indian films, after the United Kingdom. The most recognised Indian actor in Germany is Shah Rukh Khan, who has had box-office success in the country with films such asDon 2 (2011)[236] andOm Shanti Om (2007).[116] He has a large German fan base,[184] particularly inBerlin (where the tabloidDie Tageszeitung compared his popularity to that of thepope).[116]
Bollywood has experienced revenue growth inCanada and the United States, particularly in the South Asian communities of large cities such asToronto, Chicago, and New York City.[95]Yash Raj Films, one of India's largest production houses and distributors, reported in September 2005 that Bollywood films in the United States earned about $100 million per year in theatre screenings, video sales and the sale of movie soundtracks;[95] Indian films earn more money in the United States than films from any other non-English speaking country.[95] Since the mid-1990s, a number of Indian films have been largely (or entirely) shot in New York, Los Angeles, Vancouver or Toronto. Films such asThe Guru (2002) andMarigold: An Adventure in India (2007) attempted to popularise Bollywood for Hollywood.[citation needed]
Plagiarism
Pressured by rushed production schedules and small budgets, some writers and musicians in Hindi cinema have been notorious toplagiarise.[267] Ideas, plot lines, tunes or riffs have been copied from other Indian film industries (includingTelugu cinema,Tamil cinema,Malayalam cinema and others) or foreign films (including Hollywood and otherAsian films) without acknowledging the source.[268]
Before the 1990s, plagiarism occurred with impunity.Copyright enforcement was lax in India, and few actors or directors saw an official contract.[269] The Hindi film industry was not widely known in theGlobal North (except in the Soviet states), who would be unaware that their material had been copied. Audiences may not have been aware of plagiarism, since many in India were unfamiliar with foreign films and music.[268] Although copyright enforcement in India is still somewhat lenient, Bollywood and other film industries are more aware of each other and Indian audiences are more familiar with foreign films and music.[citation needed] Organisations such as the India EU Film Initiative seek to foster a community between filmmakers and industry professionals in India and theEuropean Union.[268]
A commonly-reported justification for plagiarism in Bollywood is that cautious producers want to remake popular Hollywood films in an Indian context. Although screenwriters generally produce original scripts, many are rejected due to uncertainty about whether a film will be successful.[268] Poorly-paid screenwriters have also been criticised for a lack of creativity.[270] Some filmmakers see plagiarism in Bollywood as an integral part of globalisation, with which Western (particularly American) culture is embedding itself into Indian culture.[270]Vikram Bhatt, director ofRaaz (a remake ofWhat Lies Beneath) andKasoor (a remake ofJagged Edge), has spoken about the influence of American culture and Bollywood's desire to produce box-office hits based along the same lines: "Financially, I would be more secure knowing that a particular piece of work has already done well at the box office. Copying is endemic everywhere in India. Our TV shows are adaptations of American programmes. We want their films, their cars, their planes, theirDiet Cokes and also their attitude. The American way of life is creeping into our culture."[270] According toMahesh Bhatt, "If you hide the source, you're a genius. There's no such thing as originality in the creative sphere".[270]
Although very few cases of film-copyright violations have been taken to court because of a slow legal process,[268] the makers ofPartner (2007) andZinda (2005) were targeted by the owners and distributors of the original films:Hitch andOldboy.[271][272] The American studio20th Century Fox brought Mumbai-based B. R. Films to court over the latter's forthcomingBanda Yeh Bindaas Hai, which Fox alleged was an illegal remake ofMy Cousin Vinny. B. R. Films eventually settled out of court for about $200,000, paving the way for its film's release.[273] Some studios comply with copyright law; in 2008, Orion Pictures secured the rights to remake Hollywood'sWedding Crashers.[274]
Music
The PakistaniQawwali musicianNusrat Fateh Ali Khan had a big impact on Hindi film music, inspiring numerous Indian musicians working in Bollywood, especially during the 1990s. However, there were many instances of Indian music directors plagiarising Khan's music to produce hitfilmi songs.[275][276] Several popular examples includeViju Shah's hit song "Tu Cheez Badi Hai Mast Mast" inMohra (1994) being plagiarised from Khan's popular Qawwali song "Dam Mast Qalandar",[275] "Mera Piya Ghar Aya" used inYaarana (1995), and "Sanoo Ek Pal Chain Na Aaye" inJudaai (1997).[275] Despite the significant number of hit Bollywood songs plagiarised from his music, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan was reportedly tolerant towards the plagiarism.[64][277] One of the Bollywood music directors who frequently plagiarised him,Anu Malik, claimed that he loved Khan's music and was actually showing admiration by using his tunes.[277] However, Khan was reportedly aggrieved when Malik turned his spiritual "Allah Hoo, Allah Hoo" into "I Love You, I Love You" inAuzaar (1997).[64] Khan said "he has taken my devotional songAllahu and converted it intoI love you. He should at least respect my religious songs."[277]
Bollywood soundtracks also plagiarisedGuinean singerMory Kanté, particularly his 1987 albumAkwaba Beach. His song, "Tama", inspired twoBollywood songs:Bappi Lahiri's "Tamma Tamma" inThanedaar (1990) and "Jumma Chumma" inLaxmikant–Pyarelal's soundtrack forHum (1991). The latter also featured "Ek Doosre Se", which copied Kanté's "Inch Allah".[278] His song "Yé ké yé ké" was used as background music in the 1990 Bollywood filmAgneepath, inspired theBollywood song "Tamma Tamma" inThanedaar.[278]
^Jha, Lata (31 January 2023)."Footfalls for Hindi films slump up to 50%".Mint. Retrieved14 February 2023.Footfalls for Hindi cinema fell to 189 million in 2022 from 341 million in 2019, 316 million in 2018 and 301 million in 2017, according to media consulting firm Ormax.
Saxena, Akshya (March 2022).Vernacular English: Reading the Anglophone in Postcolonial India. Princeton University Press. pp. 170–171.ISBN978-0-691-22313-1.Scholars of Hindi-Urdu film noted a gradual replacement of Urdu with English in these films ... the 'ideological work' of Urdu— its evocation of a pre-Partition composite culture and business practices—'has now been challenged by English, which provides the ideological coordinates of the new world of the Hindi film.'
Varia, Kush (31 January 2013).Bollywood: Gods, Glamour, and Gossip. Columbia University Press. p. 33.ISBN978-0-231-50260-3.The specific use of Hindi/Urdu has shifted through time with the films produced in the pre-independence era having a leaning towards Urdu and those of the post independence era leaning towards Hindi ... The use of Urdu has gradually declined since independence ...
Virdi, Jyotika (2003).The Cinematic ImagiNation [sic]: Indian Popular Films as Social History. Rutgers University Press. pp. 20–21.ISBN978-0-8135-3191-5.... the extent of Urdu used in commercial Hindi cinema has not been stable ... Although the shift was gradual and two generations communicated with each other through a blend of Urdu and Hindi, known as Hindustani, the ultimate victory of Hindi in the official sphere has been more or less complete. .. The decline of Urdu is mirrored in Hindi films ... It is true that many Urdu words have survived and have become part of Hindi cinema's popular vocabulary. But that is as far as it goes.
^abSarkar, Bhaskar (2008). "The Melodramas of Globalization".Cultural Dynamics.20: 31–51 [34].doi:10.1177/0921374007088054.ISSN0921-3740.S2CID143977618.Madhava Prasad traces the origin of the term to a 1932 article in theAmerican Cinematographer by Wilford E. Deming, an American engineer who apparently helped produce the first Indian sound picture. At this point, the Calcutta suburb of Tollygunge was the main center of film production in India. Deming refers to the area as Tollywood, since it already boasted two studios with 'several more projected' (Prasad, 2003) 'Tolly', rhyming with 'Holly', got hinged to 'wood' in the Anglophone Indian imagination, and came to denote the Calcutta studios and, by extension, the local film industry. Prasad surmises: 'Once Tollywood was made possible by the fortuitous availability of a half-rhyme, it was easy to clone new Hollywood babies by simply replacing the first letter' (Prasad, 2003).
^Unny, Divya (19 March 2014)."B-Town rewind: The tale of the first Bollywood crore".mid-day.com. Jagran Group. Retrieved7 November 2020.However, it was in 1943, thatKismet, directed by Gyan Mukherjee, became the first film to reach the coveted box office milestone of Rs 1 crore. Who would have thought that the journey of the crore in Indian films would begin with a movie made for under Rs 2 lakh? It was a time when India was in the throes of patriotic fervour. The Quit India movement had just been launched. Kismet, a crime thriller with patriotic sentiments, tapped into this feeling.
^Mishra, Vijay (January 1992). "Decentering History: Some Versions of Bombay Cinema".East-West Film Journal.6 (1). Honolulu, HI, US: East-West Center.The next canonical text was Luck (Kismet, 1943), which, in 1970 at any rate, held the "record as the longest running hit of Indian cinema" (Star and Style, February 6, 1970,19). [Luck] owes its amazing, unexpected success to the time in which it was made." Achut Kanya and Kismet heralded a move away from what Shyam Benegal called alienating and orientalist cinema to movies that could "deal with reality"
^Agarwal, Bhumika (August 2013). "IPTA's Contribution in Awakening Nationalism".The Criterion.4 (4). Kolhapur, MH, India: Rajaram College.Indian People's Theatre Association, popularly known by its acronym IPTA, was formed in 1942 when India was struggling to free herself from the shackles of colonial rule. The established artists of the tmmes Prithviraj Kapoor, Bijon Bhattacharya, Ritwik Ghatak, Utpal Dutt, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, Mulk Raj Anand, Salil Chowdhury, Pandit Ravi Shankar, Jyotirindra Moitra, Niranjan Singh Maan, S. Tera Singh Chan, Jagdish Faryadi, Khalili Faryadi, Rajendra Raghuvanshi, Safdar Mir and many others came forward and formed Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA) in 1942.
^"Remembering Prithviraj Kapoor".indiatoday.in. Living Media India Limited. 3 November 2016. Retrieved7 November 2020.In 1946, Prithviraj Kapoor founded Prithvi Theatres, a theatre group that became a legend over decades. The house would stage influential patriotic plays and inspire the generation to join the Indian freedom movement and Mahatma Gandhi's Quit India movement
^Bandidiwekar, Anjali (2008).Bollywood and Social Issues: Dichotomy or Symbiosis?. Hyderabad, India: ICFAI books. p. 43.Indian cinema grew up in the days of the National Movement led by Mahatma Gandhi. The Gandhian philosophy of social reform deeply influenced Bollywood directors, screen-play writers, and lyricists. Their films became vehicles of social reform, taking up the cause of the common people.
^K. Moti Gokulsing, K. Gokulsing, Wimal Dissanayake (2004).Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change. Trentham Books. p. 17.ISBN978-1-85856-329-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Sharpe, Jenny (2005). "Gender, Nation, and Globalization in Monsoon Wedding and Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge".Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism.6 (1): 58–81 [60 & 75].doi:10.1353/mer.2005.0032.S2CID201783566.
^Gooptu, Sharmistha (July 2002). "Reviewed work(s):The Cinemas of India (1896–2000) by Yves Thoraval".Economic and Political Weekly.37 (29):3023–4.
^abcdK. Moti Gokulsing, K. Gokulsing, Wimal Dissanayake (2004).Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change. Trentham Books. p. 18.ISBN978-1-85856-329-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Sridharan, Tarini (25 November 2012)."Mother India, not Woman India".The Hindu. Chennai, India.Archived from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved5 March 2012.
^Films in Review. Then and There Media, LCC. 1986. p. 368.And then I had forgotten that lndia leads the world in film production, with 833 motion pictures (up from 741 the previous year).
^Gokulsing, K. Moti; Dissanayake, Wimal (2004).Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change. Trentham Books. pp. 98–99.ISBN978-1-85856-329-9.
^Matthew Jones (January 2010). "Bollywood, Rasa and Indian Cinema: Misconceptions, Meanings and Millionaire".Visual Anthropology.23 (1):33–43.doi:10.1080/08949460903368895.S2CID144974842.
^ab"Film World".Film World.10. T.M. Ramachandran: 65. 1974.Two eminent Urdu writersKrishan Chander andIsmat Chughtai have said that "more than seventy-five per cent of films are made in Urdu."
^Schulze, Brigitte (September 2002). "The Cinematic 'Discovery of India': Mehboob's Re-Invention of the Nation in Mother India".Social Scientist.30 (9/10):72–87.doi:10.2307/3517959.JSTOR3517959.
^"Film World".Film World.10: 65. 1974.I feel that the Government should eradicate the age-old evil of certifying Urdu films as Hindi ones. It is a known fact that Urdu has been willingly accepted and used by the film industry. Two Urdu writersKrishan Chander andIsmat Chughtai have said that "more than seventy-five per cent of films are made in Urdu." It is a pity that although Urdu is freely used in films, the producers in general mention the language of the film as "Hindi" in the application forms supplied by the Censor Board. It is a gross misrepresentation and unjust to the people who love Urdu.
^Meyer, Michael (2008). "A Thematic Case Study: Border Crossings".The Bedford Introduction to Literature: Reading, Thinking, Writing (8th ed.). Boston:Bedford.ISBN978-0-312-47200-9.
^abcdSamyabrata Ray Goswami (11 November 2014)."Women get makeup justice".The Telegraph. Kolkota. Archived fromthe original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved21 April 2015.
^Yogendra Singh (19 November 2008)."Bollywood in Southeast Asia". Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies. Archived fromthe original on 18 June 2009. Retrieved18 May 2009.
^Louise Hidalgo (24 October 1998)."World: Bollywood stirs Uzbek passions".BBC News. Retrieved18 May 2009.Indian films are known for their all singing all dancing formula.
Begum-Hossain, Momtaz.Bollywood Crafts: 20 Projects Inspired by Popular Indian Cinema, 2006. The Guild of Mastercraftsman Publications.ISBN1-86108-418-8.
Dwyer, Rachel.Bollywood's India: Hindi Cinema as a Guide to Contemporary India (Reaktion Books, distributed by University of Chicago Press; 2014) 295 pages
Ganti, Tejaswini.Bollywood, Routledge, New York and London, 2004.
Ganti, Tejaswini.Producing Bollywood: Inside the Contemporary Hindi Film Industry (Duke University Press; 2012) 424 pages; looks at how major changes in film production since the 1990s have been influenced by the liberal restructuring of India's state and economy.
Gibson, Bernard. 'Bollywood'. Passing the Envelope, 1994.
Jolly, Gurbir, Zenia Wadhwani, and Deborah Barretto, eds.Once Upon a Time in Bollywood: The Global Swing in Hindi Cinema, TSAR Publications. 2007.ISBN978-1-894770-40-8.
Joshi, Lalit Mohan.Bollywood: Popular Indian Cinema.ISBN0-9537032-2-3.
Raj, Aditya (2007) "Bollywood Cinema and Indian Diaspora" inMedia Literacy: A Reader edited by Donaldo Macedo and Shirley Steinberg New York: Peter Lang
Rajadhyaksa, Ashish (1996), "India: Filming the Nation",The Oxford History of World Cinema, Oxford University Press,ISBN0-19-811257-2.
Rajadhyaksha, Ashish and Willemen, Paul.Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema, Oxford University Press, revised and expanded, 1999.
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