Boeotia Περιφερειακή ενότητα Βοιωτίας | |
|---|---|
 Municipalities of Boeotia | |
  Boeotia Boeotia within Greece  | |
| Coordinates:38°26′N22°53′E / 38.44°N 22.88°E /38.44; 22.88 | |
| Country | Greece |
| Administrative region | Central Greece |
| Seat | Livadeia |
| Area | |
• Total | 3,211 km2 (1,240 sq mi) |
| Population (2021)[1] | |
• Total | 106,056 |
| • Density | 33/km2 (86/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+2 (EET) |
| • Summer (DST) | UTC+3 (EEST) |
| Postal code | 32x xx, 190 12 |
| Area code(s) | 226x0 |
| Vehicle registration | ΒΙ |
| Website | www |
Boeotia (/biˈoʊʃ(i)ə/bee-OH-sh(ee-)ə), sometimesLatinized asBoiotia orBeotia (Greek:Βοιωτία;modern:Viotía;ancient:Boiōtía), is one of theregional units of Greece. It is part of theregion ofCentral Greece. Its capital isLivadeia, and its largest city isThebes.
Boeotia was also a region ofancient Greece, from before the 6th century BC.[2]
Boeotia lies to the north of the eastern part of theGulf of Corinth. It also has a short coastline on theGulf of Euboea. It bordered onMegaris (nowWest Attica) in the south,Attica in the southeast,Euboea in the northeast,Opuntian Locris (now part ofPhthiotis) in the north andPhocis in the west.[2]
The main mountain ranges of Boeotia areMount Parnassus in the west,Mount Helicon in the southwest,Cithaeron in the south andParnitha in the east. Its longest river, theCephissus, flows in the central part, where most of the low-lying areas of Boeotia are found.[2]
Lake Copais was a large lake in the center of Boeotia. It was drained in the 19th century.Lake Yliki is a large lake nearThebes.
The origin of the name "Boeotians" may lie in the mountainBoeon inEpirus.[3]
The earliest inhabitants of Boeotia, associated with the city ofOrchomenus, were calledMinyans.Pausanias mentions that Minyans established the maritimeIonian city ofTeos,[4] and occupied the islands ofLemnos andThera. TheArgonauts were sometimes referred to as Minyans. Also, according to legend the citizens of Thebes paid an annual tribute to their kingErginus.[5] The Minyans may have beenproto-Greek speakers. Although most scholars today agree that theMyceneans descended from the Minyans of theMiddle Helladic period, they believe that the progenitors and founders ofMinyan culture were anindigenous people.[6]The early wealth and power of Boeotia is shown by the reputation and visible Mycenean remains of several of its cities, especially Orchomenus andThebes.
Some toponyms and the commonAeolic dialect indicate that the Boeotians were related to theThessalians. Traditionally, the Boeotians are said to have originally occupiedThessaly, the largest fertile plain in Greece, and to have been dispossessed by the north-western Thessalians two generations after theFall of Troy (1200 BC). They moved south and settled in another rich plain, while others filtered across theAegean and settled onLesbos and inAeolis inAsia Minor. Others are said to have stayed in Thessaly, withdrawing into the hill country and becoming theperioikoi ("dwellers around").[7] Boeotia was an early member of the oldestAmphictyonic League (Anthelian), a religious confederacy of related tribes, despite its distance from the League's original home inAnthela.[8][9]
Although they included great men such asPindar,Hesiod,Epaminondas,Pelopidas, andPlutarch, the Boeotian people were portrayed as proverbially dull by the Athenians (cf.Boeotian ears incapable of appreciating music or poetry andHog-Boeotians,Cratinus.310).[10][11]
Many ancient Greek legends originated or are set in this region. The older myths took their final form during theMycenean age (1600–1200 BC) when theMycenean Greeks established themselves in Boeotia and the city ofThebes became an important centre. Many of them are related to the myths ofArgos, and others indicate connections withPhoenicia, where the Mycenean Greeks and later theEuboean Greeks established trading posts.
Important legends related to Boeotia include:
Many of these legends were used in plays by the tragic Greek poets,Aeschylus,Sophocles, andEuripides:
They were also used in lost plays such as Aeschylus'sNiobe and Euripides'sAntiope.
Boeotia was also notable for the ancient oracular shrine of Trophonius atLebadea.Graea, an ancient city in Boeotia, is sometimes thought to be the origin of the Latin wordGraecus, from which English derives the wordsGreece andGreeks.
The major poetsHesiod andPindar were Boeotians. Nonetheless, the French use the termbéotien ("Boeotian") to denotePhilistinism.
Boeotia had significant political importance, owing to its position on the north shore of theGulf of Corinth, the strategic strength of its frontiers, and the ease of communication within its extensive area. On the other hand, the lack of good harbours hindered its maritime development.
The importance of the legendaryMinyae has been confirmed by archaeological remains (notably the "Treasury of Minyas"). The Boeotian population entered the land from the north possibly before theDorian invasion. With the exception of the Minyae, the original peoples were soon absorbed by these immigrants, and the Boeotians henceforth appear as a homogeneous nation.Aeolic Greek was spoken in Boeotia.
In historical times, the leading city of Boeotia was Thebes, whose central position and military strength made it a suitable capital;[12] other major towns wereOrchomenus,Plataea, andThespiae. It was the constant ambition of the Thebans to absorb the other townships into a single state, just asAthens had annexed theAttic communities. But the outlying cities successfully resisted this policy, and only allowed the formation of a loose federation that, initially, was merely religious.[12]
While the Boeotians, unlike theArcadians, generally acted as a united whole against foreign enemies, the constant struggle between the cities was a serious check on the nation's development. Boeotia hardly figures in history before the late 6th century BC.
Previous to this, its people are chiefly known as the makers of a type of geometric pottery, similar to theDipylon ware of Athens. In about 519 BC, the resistance ofPlataea to the federating policy of Thebes led to the interference of Athens on behalf of the former; on this occasion, and again in 507 BC, the Athenians defeated the Boeotian levy.
TheWorks and Days byHesiod is often used by economists and historians alike to provide invaluable evidence for the Boetian economic system and its developments in the Homeric Age. In the poem Hesiod, who lived in Boeotia, describes the beginnings of a modern economy, with the use of artisans to 'do the technical work in making his plow and wagon' and the beginnings of sea commerce and its increasing importance in the economic life of Greece.[13]
According to myth, the Boeotians (Ancient Greek:Βοιώτιοι,romanized: Boiotioi) lived inThessaly, especially in the area aroundArne, though some may have gone to thePagasitic Gulf before migrating to the land later termed Boeotia. The location ofArne is unknown, though sometimes it is equated withCierium in CentralThessaly. The presence in Classical times in Boeotia of cults and place-names of Thessalian origin, such asItonia and Itonian Athena,Homole and Homoloian Zeus,Alalcomenae,Corseia andPharae, confirm for most scholars the merits of these traditions. It is, therefore, generally believed that the Boeotians originated in Thessaly and lived there as a distinctethnos, in Phthiotis or in Thessaliotis, before they migrated to Boeotia, taking elements with them from other parts ofThessaly.[citation needed]
Boeotians were expelled fromThessaly after theTrojan war although there are three traditions which disagree on how expulsion played out.[citation needed] One tradition says that the Boiotoi were expelled by theThessalians who were led byThessalus, son of Aiatus, son ofPheidippus, son of another Thessalus.Pheidippus appears in theCatalogue of ships as one of the commanders of the force from Cos and Carpathus. He was thought to have been driven toEpirus after the war and to have settled atEphyra in theThesprotid. Hence the Boiotoi were expelled two generations after the Trojan War.Hellanicus is probably the source of this tradition, and the source ofThucydides' "sixtieth year", that is, two generations of thirty years. A second tradition puts the expulsion of the Boiotoi in the reign of Aiatus, one generation after theWar. To this should also belong the story inPlutarch, which tells howOpheltas king of the Boiotoi tookChaeronea "by force from the barbarians." Opheltas is the son ofPeneleus, one of the leaders of the Boeotian contingent in theCatalogue, and living one generation after the war. It is not until the reign ofDamasichthon, son ofOpheltas, that control of Thebes was gained by the Boiotoi. Hence in this tradition one generation after the war, the Boiotoi were expelled and western Boeotia was invaded; two generations after the war, Thebes was won. A third tradition combines the other two: the two generations until the expulsion fromThessaly after the War and the two generations until Thebes is gained give the four generations cited byHieronymus in his tale of theCadmean return to Thebes after the war.[citation needed]
The entry-point to Boeotia by Boeotians seems to be put in the same general area by all traditions. The second tradition givesChaeronea as the first place attacked, while the first says thatCoronea andOrchomenus were captured virtually simultaneously and then the sanctuary of Itonian Athena was founded. It is clear that both traditions envisaged the Boiotoi as following a well-known invasion route fromThessaly, the one viaThermopylae andHyampolis toChaeronea, where the invaders would be poised to attack bothOrchomenus andCoronea. Having gained control ofChaeronea,Orchomenus andCoronea, and their territories, the Boiotoi seem to have paused to digest western Boeotia; the generation or two beforeThebes was captured marks this pause in all traditions. The siting close to Coronea of the sanctuary of Itonian Athena, and the celebration of thePamboeotia there, together with the renaming of rivers and other toponyms, and the sanctity attached to the neighbouring settlement ofAlalcomenae, all strengthen the belief that this western section was the area where the first Boeotian settlement took place, and where Boeotian institutions were first established in the new homeland. The advance eastward eventually proceeded both to the north and to the south ofCopais lake. On the north side it ultimately reachedAnthedon, a town credited with once having been occupied by theThracians. On the south side it came as far asThebes andThespiae. In Thebes, according to one version,Damasichthon took the rule fromAutesion, son ofTisamenus, son ofThersander, another stemma that puts the Boeotians inThebes two generations after theTrojan War. The tradition intimates that there was a peaceful take-over, withAutesion joining theDorians. There must have been another pause for some time. The next advance, into theAsopus valley, was led byXanthus, son ofPtolemy, son ofDamasichthon, that is, two generations after the gaining ofThebes. The Thebans remembered, according to Thucydides, that theAsopus valley andPlataea were reduced later than the rest of Boeotia and were occupied in accordance with an agreed plan. The Boeotian advance was apparently stalled on what became the Athenian-Boeotian frontier, by the efforts of local forces, if the legend ofXanthus andMelanthus has any historical significance. In any event the death ofXanthus symbolized traditionally the completion of the conquest of Boeotia under the kings and the consequent immediate extinction of the kingship.[14]
During thePersian invasion of 480 BC, Thebes assisted the invaders. In consequence, for a time, the presidency of the Boeotian League was taken from Thebes, but in 457 BC theSpartans reinstated that city as a bulwark against Athenian aggression after theBattle of Tanagra. Athens retaliated with a sudden advance upon Boeotia, and after the victory at theBattle of Oenophyta took control of the whole country, taking down the wall the Spartans had built. With the victory the Athenians also occupiedPhocis, the original source of the conflict, and OpuntianLocris.[15] For ten years the land remained under Athenian control, which was exercised through the newly installed democracies; but in 447 BC the people revolted, and after a victory at theBattle of Coronea regained their independence.[12]
In thePeloponnesian War the Boeotians fought zealously against Athens. Although slightly estranged from Sparta after thepeace of Nicias, they never abated their enmity against their neighbours. They rendered good service atSyracuse and at theBattle of Arginusae in the closing years of the Peloponnesian War; but their greatest achievement was the decisive victory at theBattle of Delium over the Athenian army (424 BC) in which both their heavy infantry and their cavalry displayed unusual efficiency.
According to theHellenica Oxyrhynchia, in 395 BC the Boeotian League comprised eleven groups of sovereign cities and associated townships, each of which elected oneBoeotarch or minister of war and foreign affairs, contributed sixty delegates to the federal council at Thebes, and supplied a contingent of about 1000 infantry and 100 cavalry to the federal army. A safeguard against undue encroachment on the part of the central government was provided in the councils of the individual cities, to which all important questions of policy had to be submitted for ratification. These local councils, to which the propertied classes alone were eligible, were subdivided into four sections, resembling theprytaneis of the Athenian council, which took it in turns to vote on all new measures.[12][16]
Two Boeotarchs were provided by Thebes, but by 395 BC Thebes was providing four Boeotarchs, including two who had represented places now conquered by Thebes such as Plataea,Scolus,Erythrae, andScaphae.Orchomenus,Hysiae, andTanagra each supplied one Boeotarch.Thespiae,Thisbe, andEutresis supplied two between them.Haliartus,Lebadea andCoronea supplied one in turn, and so didAcraephia,Copae, andChaeronea.[17]
The total military force of the Boiotian League (11,000 infantry and 1,100 cavalry) has been used as the basis for a number of calculations of the population of the region in the early fourth century BC.John Bintliff assumes an additional 21,000 light troops and rowers in the navy, for a total of 33,100 men. Assuming the same number of women, two children and one slave for every household, he estimates the total Boeotian population at 165,500 (including 33,100 slaves).[18]Mogens Herman Hansen assumes an additional 12,100 light troops, for a total of 24,200 men in the army. He assumes that 25% of men were ineligible for military service, so his total population of men between the ages of twenty and fifty is 30,250. Usingmodel life tables he calculates a total male citizen population of 72,240 and an equal number of women, for a minimum free population of 144,050, plus an unknown number of slaves and foreign residents. He proposes a maximum of 250,000. By comparison, the population of Boeotia was 38,000–50,000 in the late sixteenth century, according totahrir records, 40,000–42,000 in the 1889 census, and 117,920 in the 2011 census.[19]
Boeotia took a prominent part in theCorinthian War against Sparta, especially in the battles ofHaliartus andCoronea (395–394 BC). This change of policy was mainly due to the popular resentment against foreign interference. Yet disaffection against Thebes was now growing rife, and Sparta fostered this feeling by insisting on the complete independence of all the cities in thePeace of Antaclidas (387 BC). In 374 BC,Pelopidas restored Theban dominance.[12] Boeotian contingents fought in all the campaigns ofEpaminondas against the Spartans, most notably at theBattle of Leuctra in 371 BC, and in theThird Sacred War againstPhocis (356–346 BC); while in the dealings withPhilip of Macedon the cities merely followed Thebes.
The federal constitution was also brought into accord with the democratic governments now prevalent throughout the land. Sovereign power was vested in the popular assembly, which elected the Boeotarchs (between seven and twelve in number), and sanctioned all laws. After theBattle of Chaeroneia, in which the Boeotian heavy infantry once again distinguished itself, the land never again rose to prosperity.[12]
The destruction of Thebes byAlexander the Great (335 BC) destroyed the political energy of the Boeotians. They never again pursued an independent policy, but followed the lead of protecting powers. Although military training and organization continued, the people proved unable to defend the frontiers, and the land became more than ever the "dancing-ground of Ares". Although enrolled for a short time in the Aetolian League (about 245 BC) Boeotia was generally loyal toMacedon, and supported its later kings against Rome. Rome dissolved the league in 171 BC, but it was revived underAugustus, and merged with the other central Greek federations in theAchaean synod. The death-blow to the country's prosperity was dealt by the devastations during theFirst Mithridatic War.[12]
Save for a short period of prosperity under theFrankish rulers of Athens (1205–1310), who repaired the underground drainage channels (καταβόθραkatavóthra) of Lake Kopais and fostered agriculture, Boeotia long continued in a state of decay, aggravated by occasional barbarian incursions. The first step toward the country's recovery was not until 1895, when the drainage channels of Kopais were again put into working order.
In 1880–86,Heinrich Schliemann's excavations atOrchomenus (H. Schliemann,Orchomenos, Leipzig 1881) revealed the tholos tomb he called the "Tomb ofMinyas", aMycenaean monument that equalled thebeehive tomb known as theTreasury of Atreus atMycenae. In 1893, A. de Ridder excavated the temple ofAsclepios and some burials in the Roman necropolis. In 1903–05, a Bavarian archaeological mission underHeinrich Bulle andAdolf Furtwängler conducted successful excavations at the site. Research continued in 1970–73 by the Archaeological Service underTheodore Spyropoulos, uncovering the Mycenaean palace, a prehistoric cemetery, the ancientamphitheatre, and other structures.
The regional unit Boeotia is subdivided into 6 municipalities. These are (number as in the map in the infobox):[20]
Boeotia was created as aprefecture in 1836 (Greek:Διοίκησις Βοιωτίας), again in 1899 (Νομός Βοιωτίας) and again in 1943; in all cases it was split fromAttica and Boeotia Prefecture. As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, the regional unit Boeotia was created out of the former prefecture Boeotia. The prefecture had the same territory as the present regional unit. At the same time, the municipalities were reorganised, according to the table below.[20]
| New municipality | Old municipalities & communities | Seat |
|---|---|---|
| Aliartos | Aliartos | Aliartos |
| Thespies | ||
| Distomo-Arachova-Antikyra | Distomo | Distomo |
| Arachova | ||
| Antikyra | ||
| Livadeia | Livadeia | Livadeia |
| Davleia | ||
| Koroneia | ||
| Kyriaki | ||
| Chaironeia | ||
| Orchomenus | Orchomenus | Orchomenus |
| Akraifnia | ||
| Tanagra | Tanagra | Schimatari |
| Dervenochoria | ||
| Oinofyta | ||
| Schimatari | ||
| Thebes (Thiva) | Thebes | Thebes |
| Vagia | ||
| Thisvi | ||
| Plataies |
Theprovinces were:
Boeotia is the home of the third largestpasta factory in Europe, built byMISKO, a member ofBarilla Group.[21] Also, some of the biggest companies in Greece and Europe have factories in this place. For example,Nestlé andViohalco have factories inOinofyta, Boeotia.
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Boeotia".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 114–115. This cites as authorities:
Administrative division of theCentral Greece Region | ||
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| Regional unit ofBoeotia |  | |
| Regional unit ofEuboea | ||
| Regional unit ofEvrytania | ||
| Regional unit ofPhocis | ||
| Regional unit ofPhthiotis | ||
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