Adoration of the Shepherds by Dutch painterMatthias Stom,c. 1650The Nativity, an early 18th-centuryRussian Orthodoxicon featuring common Orthodox iconographic elements of the Nativity by an anonymous Russian iconographer
TheNativity orbirth of JesusChrist is found in the biblical gospels ofMatthew andLuke. The two accounts agree thatJesus was born inBethlehem, modern dayPalestine, inRoman-controlled Judea, thathis mother, Mary, was engaged to a man namedJoseph, who wasdescended from King David and was not his biological father, and that his birth wascaused by divine intervention. The majority of contemporary scholars do not see the two canonical gospelNativity stories as historically factual[1][2] since they present clashing accounts and irreconcilablegenealogies. The secular history of the time does not synchronize with the narratives of the birth and early childhood of Jesus in the two gospels.[3][4][5] Some view the question of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than chronological timelines.
The Nativity is the basis for theChristian holiday ofChristmas and plays a major role in the Christian liturgical year. Many Christians traditionally display smallmanger scenes depicting the Nativity within or outside of their homes, or attendNativity plays orChristmas pageants focusing on the Nativity cycle in the Bible. Elaborate Nativity displays featuring life-sized statues are a tradition in manycontinental European countries during theChristmas season.
Theartistic depiction of the Nativity has been an important subject forChristian artists since the 4th century. Artistic depictions of theNativity scene since the 13th century have emphasized thehumility of Jesus and promoted a more tender image of him, a major change from the early "Lord and Master" image, mirroring changes in the common approaches taken by Christian pastoral ministry during the same era.
Gospel accounts
Only the Gospels ofMatthew andLuke offer narratives regarding the birth of Jesus.[6] Both agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem in the reign of King Herod, that his mother was named Mary and that her husband Joseph was descended from KingDavid (although they disagree on details of the line of descent), and both deny Joseph's biological parenthood while treating the birth, or rather the conception, as divinely effected.[7]Beyond this, they agree on very little.[7] Joseph dominates Matthew's and Mary dominates Luke's, although the suggestion that one derives from Joseph and the other from Mary is no more than a pious deduction.[8] Matthew implies that Joseph already has his home in Bethlehem, while Luke states that he lived in Nazareth.[7]In Matthew the angel speaks to Joseph, while Luke hasone speaking to Mary.[8] Only Luke has the stories surrounding the birth ofJohn the Baptist, thecensus of Quirinius, theadoration of the shepherds and thepresentation in the Temple on the fortieth day; only Matthew has thewise men, thestar of Bethlehem, Herod's plot, theMassacre of the Innocents, and theflight into Egypt.[8] The two itineraries are quite different. According to Matthew, the Holy Family begins in Bethlehem, moves to Egypt following the birth, and settles in Nazareth, while according to Luke they begin in Nazareth, journey to Bethlehem for the birth, and immediately return to Nazareth.[9][note 1] The two accounts cannot be harmonised into a single coherent narrative or traced to the sameQ source, leading scholars to classify them as "special Matthew" (or simply theM source) and "special Luke" (theL source).[9]
Comparison between the Nativity narratives in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew
Mary, the mother of Jesus, was betrothed to Joseph, but was found to be pregnant through theHoly Spirit. Joseph intended to divorce her quietly, but an angel told him in adream that he should take her as his wife and name the child Jesus, "because it is he who will save his people from their sins". This would fulfil the prophecy that a virgin would give birth to a son, who would be known asEmmanuel, meaning "God is with us". Joseph awoke, took Mary for his wife, did not have intercourse with her, and she gave birth to a boy, and gave him the name Jesus (Matthew 1:18–25).[10]
Joseph has been shown to be the descendant ofDavid (the angel addresses him as "son of David") and heir to the kingdom of Judah, but Matthew 1:16[11] reveals that Jesus is not Joseph's son, and Matthew is careful never to refer to him in this way.[12] The role of Joseph in naming the child indicates that he is being legally adopted, and thus becoming, like his now-legal father, "son of David."[13]
Adoration of the magi
The birth took place in the town of Bethlehem in the region known as Judea to the Romans and Judah to the Assyrians, in the time of King Herod (Herod the Great).Wise men from the East (the Magi) came to Jerusalem, asking where they could find the child bornking of the Jews, for they had seen hisstar at its rising, and wished to pay him homage. Herod and all Jerusalem were afraid when they heard this, but Herod, learning from the chief priests and scribes that the messiah would be born in Bethlehem according to prophecy, sent the Magi there with instructions to return and tell him when they had found him. The Magi worshipped the child in Bethlehem and gave him gifts ofgold,frankincense, andmyrrh, but an angel warned them in a dream not to return to Herod, and they returned home by another way.
Massacre of the Innocents, flight into Egypt, and return to Israel
When Herod learned that the Magi had tricked him, he was infuriated and killed all the children in and around Bethlehem under the age of two (theMassacre of the Innocents). This was in fulfilment of the prophet Jeremiah: "A voice was heard in Ramah, wailing and loud lamentation, Rachel weeping for her children; she refused to be consoled, because they are no more." But an angel had appeared to Joseph in a dream and warned him to take the child and his mother andflee to Egypt, and theHoly Family remained there until Herod died to fulfil the words of the prophet, "Out of Egypt I have called my son." On the death of Herod an angel appeared to Joseph in a dream and told him to return with the child and its mother to Israel, but Herod's son was now ruler of Judea, and after being warned in a dream Joseph went instead to Galilee, where he made his home in Nazareth "so that what had been spoken through the prophets might be fulfilled, "He will be called a Nazorean.""[14]
In this chapter, the author of Matthew needs to establish that "Jesus of Nazareth" was in fact born in Bethlehem, the town where David was born, for the "son of David" born there will be "King of the Jews" (a designation that does not reappear in Matthew until the crucifixion).[15] Herod's fear and the visit of the Magi underline the royal birth, as do the various prophetic texts quoted or referenced in this chapter.[16]
In the Gospel of Luke, when Herod was king of Judea, God sent theangel Gabriel to Nazareth in Galilee toannounce to a virgin named Mary, who was betrothed to a man named Joseph, that a child would be born to her. The angel Gabriel announced that she was to name him Jesus, for he would be theson of God and rule over Israel forever. When the time of the birth drew near,Caesar Augustus commanded a census of Roman domains, and Joseph took Mary to Bethlehem, the ancient city of David, as he was of theHouse of David. Jesus was born in Bethlehem; since there was nowhere for them to stay in the town, the infant was laid in a manger whileangels announced his birth to a group of shepherds whoworshipped him as Messiah and Lord.
Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was born inBethlehem inJudea during the reign of Herod the Great.[7] In Luke the newborn baby is placed in amanger "because there was no place in thekatalyma".[17]Katalyma might mean a private home (this has little support among scholars), or a room in a private home, or an inn, but it is impossible to be certain which is meant.[18]
In the 2nd century,Justin Martyr stated that Jesus had been born in a cave outside the town, while theProtoevangelium of James described a legendary birth in a cave nearby.[19][20] TheChurch of the Nativity inside the town, built bySt. Helena, contains the cave-manger site traditionally venerated as the birthplace of Jesus, which may have originally been a site of the cult of the godTammuz.[21] In hisContra Celsum (1.51),Origen, who travelled throughout Palestine beginning in around 215, wrote of the "manger of Jesus".[22]
The date of birth for Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but basing it on the death of Herod would place the date between 6 BC and 4 BC.[23] The historical evidence is too ambiguous to allow a definitive date to be determined,[24] but dates have been estimated through known historical events mentioned in the Nativity accounts,[25] by working backwards from the estimated start of theministry of Jesus,[26][27] or by associating the claimedastrological portents mentioned with actual historicalastronomical alignments and phenomena.[28]
Helmut Koester writes that while Matthew's narrative was formed in a Jewish environment, Luke's was modeled to appeal to theGreco-Roman world.[29] In particular, while shepherds were regarded negatively by Jews in Jesus' time, they were seen in Greco-Roman culture as "symbols of a golden age when gods and humans lived in peace and nature was at harmony".[29] C. T. Ruddick Jr. writes that Luke's birth narratives of Jesus and John were modeled on passages fromGenesis, chapters 27–43.[30][31] Regardless, Luke's Nativity depicts Jesus as a savior for all people, tracing a genealogy all the way back to Adam, demonstrating his common humanity, and likewise for the lowly circumstances of his birth. Luke, writing for agentile audience, portrays the infant Jesus as a savior for gentiles as well as Jews.[32] Matthew uses quotations from Jewish scripture, scenes reminiscent ofMoses' life, and a numerical pattern in his genealogy to identify Jesus as a son of David, of Abraham, and of God. Luke's prelude is much longer, emphasizing the age of theHoly Spirit and the arrival of a savior for all people, both Jew and gentile.[33]
Mainstream scholars interpret Matthew's Nativity as depicting Jesus as a new Moses with a genealogy going back to Abraham,[34][35] whileUlrich Luz views Matthew's depiction of Jesus at once as the new Moses and the inverse of Moses, and not simply a retelling of the Moses story.[36] Luz also points out that in the massacre narrative, once again, a fulfilment quotation is given:Rachel, the ancestral mother of Israel, weeping for her dead children (Matthew 2:18).[37][38]
Scholars who interpret Matthew as casting Jesus in the role of being a second Moses argue that, like Moses, the infant Jesus is saved from a murderous tyrant; and he flees the country of his birth until his persecutor is dead and it is safe to return as the savior of his people.[39] In this view, the account in Matthew is based on an earlier narrative patterned on traditions about the birth of Moses. Moses' birth is announced to Pharaoh by Magi; the child is threatened and rescued; the male Israelite children are similarly put to death by an evil king.[34][39]
According to Ulrich Luz, the beginning of the narrative of Matthew is similar to earlier biblical stories, e.g., theAnnunciation of Jesus' birth (Matthew 1:18–25)[40] is reminiscent of the biblical accounts of the births ofIshmael (Genesis 16:11, Genesis 17),[41]Isaac (Genesis 21:1),[42] Samson (Judges 13:3, 13:5),[43] and recalls theHaggadic traditions of the birth of Moses. Yet in Luz's view, the contours appear, in part, strangely overlapped and inverted: "Egypt, formerly the land of suppression becomes a place of refuge and it is the King of Israel who now takes on the role ofPharaoh. Yet Matthew is not simply retelling the Moses story. Instead, the story of Jesus really is a new story: Jesus is at once the new Moses and the inverse of Moses."[36]
Scholars have debated whetherMatthew 1:22 andMatthew 2:23 refer to specificOld Testament passages. Fourth century documents such as theCodex Sinaiticus do not mention the prophetIsaiah in the statement inMatthew 1:22: "All this happened to fulfill what the Lord had spoken by the prophet", but some copies of Matthew from the 5th–6th centuries, such as theCodex Bezae, read "Isaiah the prophet".[44] The statement inMatthew 1:23, "Behold the virgin shall be with child", uses the Greek termparthenos ("virgin") as in theSeptuagint Isaiah, while theBook of Isaiah7:14 uses the Hebrewalmah, which may mean "maiden", "young woman", or "virgin".[45]Raymond E. Brown states that the 3rd century BC translators of the Septuagint may have understood the Hebrew wordalmah to mean "virgin" in this context.[45]
The statement inMatthew 2:23 that "he will be called a Nazarene" does not mention a specific passage in the Old Testament, and there are multiple scholarly interpretations as to what it may refer to.[46]Barbara Aland and other scholars consider the GreekΝαζωραίος,Nazoréos used for 'Nazarene' of uncertain etymology and meaning,[47] butM. J. J. Menken states that it is ademonym that refers to an "inhabitant of Nazareth".[48] Menken also states that it may be referring to Judges 13:5 and 13:7.[49]Gary Smith states thatNazirite may mean one consecrated to God, i.e. an ascetic; or may refer toIsaiah 11:1.[50]The Oxford Bible Commentary states that it may be word-play on the use ofnazirite, "Holy One of God," in Isaiah 4:3,[51] meant to identify Jesus with theNazarenes, a Jewish sect who differed from thePharisees only in that they regarded Jesus as the Messiah.[39] The Swiss theologianUlrich Luz, who locates the Matthean community in Syria, has noted thatSyrian Christians also called themselves Nazarenes.[52]
The theological significance of the Nativity of Jesus has been a key element in Christian teachings, from the earlyChurch Fathers to 20th century theologians.[53][54][55] The theological issues were addressed as early asApostle Paul, but continued to be debated and eventually led to bothChristological andMariological differences among Christians that resulted in earlyschisms within the Church by the 5th century.
He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation. For by him all things were created, in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible.
Paul the Apostle viewed the birth of Jesus as an event of cosmic significance which brought forth a "new man" who undid the damage caused by the fall of the first man,Adam. Just as theJohannine view of Jesus as the incarnateLogos proclaims the universal relevance of his birth, the Pauline perspective emphasizes the birth of a new man and a new world in the birth of Jesus.[60] Paul'seschatological view of Jesus counter-positions him as a new man of morality and obedience, in contrast toAdam. Unlike Adam, the new man born in Jesus obeys God and ushers in a world of morality and salvation.[60]
In the Pauline view, Adam is positioned as the first man and Jesus as the second: Adam, having corrupted himself by his disobedience, also infected humanity and left it with a curse as inheritance. The birth of Jesus, on the other hand, counterbalanced the fall of Adam, bringing forth redemption and repairing the damage done by Adam.[61]
Inpatristic theology, Paul's contrasting of Jesus as the new man versus Adam provided a framework for discussing the uniqueness of the birth of Jesus and the ensuing events of his life. The Nativity of Jesus thus began to serve as the starting point for "cosmic Christology" in which the birth, life and Resurrection of Jesus have universal implications.[60][62][63] The concept of Jesus as the "new man" repeats in the cycle of birth and rebirth of Jesus from his Nativity to hisresurrection: following his birth, through his morality and obedience to the Father, Jesus began a new harmony in the relationship between God the Father and man. The Nativity and resurrection of Jesus thus created the author and exemplar of a new humanity.[64]
When He became incarnate and was made man, He commenced afresh the long line of human beings, and furnished us, in a brief, comprehensive manner, with salvation; so that what we had lost in Adam – namely to be according to the image and likeness of God – that we might recover in Christ Jesus.[54][55]
Irenaeus was also one of the early theologians to use the analogy of "second Adam and second Eve". He suggested the Virgin Mary as the "second Eve" and wrote that the Mary had "untied the knot of sin bound up by the virgin Eve" and that just as Eve had tempted Adam to disobey God, Mary had set a path of obedience for the second Adam (i.e. Jesus) from theAnnunciation toCalvary so that Jesus could bring about salvation, undoing the damage of Adam.[65]
In the 4th century, this uniqueness of the circumstances related to the Nativity of Jesus, and their interplay with the mystery of the incarnation, became a central element in both the theology and hymnody ofEphrem the Syrian. For him, the uniqueness of the Nativity of Jesus was supplemented with the sign of the majesty of the Creator through the ability of a powerful God to enter the world as a small newborn.[66]
In theMiddle Ages the birth of Jesus as the second Adam came to be seen in the context ofSaint Augustine'sFelix culpa ("happy fall") and was intertwined with the popular teachings on the fall from grace ofAdam and Eve.[67] Augustine was fond of a statement on the Nativity byGregory of Nyssa and he quoted it five times: "Venerate the Nativity, through which you are freed from the bonds of an earthly nativity".[68] He also liked to quote: "Just as in Adam all of us died, so too in Christ all of us will be brought to life".[68][69]
The theology persisted into theProtestant Reformation, and second Adam was one of the six modes of atonement discussed byJohn Calvin.[70] In the 20th century, leading theologianKarl Barth continued the same line of reasoning and viewed the Nativity of Jesus as the birth of a new man who succeeded Adam. In Barth's theology, in contrast to Adam, Jesus acted as anobedient Son in the fulfilment of the divine will and was therefore free from sin and could hence reveal the righteousness of God the Father and bring about salvation.[53]
The Nativity of Jesus impacted theChristological issues about thePerson of Christ from the earliest days of Christianity. Luke's Christology centers on the dialectics of the dual natures of the earthly and heavenly manifestations of existence of the Christ, while Matthew's Christology focuses on the mission of Jesus and his role as the savior.[71][72]
The belief in the divinity of Jesus leads to the question: "was Jesus a man to be born of a woman or was he God born of a woman?" A wide range of hypotheses and beliefs regarding the nature of the Nativity of Jesus were presented in the first four centuries of Christianity. Some of the debates involved the titleTheotokos (God bearer) for theVirgin Mary and began to illustrate the impact ofMariology onChristology. Some of these viewpoints were eventually declared asheresies, others led to schisms and the formation of new branches of the Church.[73][74][75][76]
Thesalvific emphasis ofMatthew 1:21 later impacted the theological issues and the devotions to theHoly Name of Jesus.[77][78][79]Matthew 1:23 provides the only key to theEmmanuel Christology in the New Testament. Beginning with 1:23, Matthew shows a clear interest in identifying Jesus as "God with us" and in later developing the Emmanuel characterization of Jesus at key points throughout the rest of his Gospel.[80] The name 'Emmanuel' does not appear elsewhere in the New Testament, but Matthew builds on it inMatthew 28:20 ("I am with you always, even unto the end of the world") to indicate that Jesus will be with the faithful to the end of the age.[80][81] According toUlrich Luz, the Emmanuel motif brackets the entire Gospel of Matthew between 1:23 and 28:20, appearing explicitly and implicitly in several other passages.[82]
In the 5th century, leadingChurch FatherPope Leo I used the Nativity as a key element of his theology. Leo gave 10 sermons on the Nativity and 7 have survived. The one on December 25, 451, demonstrates his concern to increase the importance of the feast of Nativity and along with it emphasize the two natures of Christ in defense of the Christological doctrine of hypostatic union.[89] Leo often used his Nativity sermons as an occasion to attack opposing viewpoints, without naming the opposition. Thus Leo used the occasion of the Nativity feast to establish boundaries for what could be considered a heresy regarding the birth and nature of Christ.[73]
In the 13th century,Thomas Aquinas addressed the Christological attribution of the Nativity: if it should be attributed to the person (the Word) or only to the assumed human nature of that person. Aquinas treated Nativity in 8 separate articles inSumma Theologica, each posing a separate question:
"Does Nativity regard the nature rather than the Person?"
"Should a temporal Nativity be attributed to Christ?"
"Should the Blessed Virgin be called Christ's Mother?"
"Should the Blessed Virgin be called the Mother of God?"
To deal with this issue, Aquinas distinguishes between the person born and the nature in which the birth takes place.[91] Aquinas thus resolved the question by arguing that in the hypostatic union Christ has two natures, one received from the Father from eternity, the other from his mother in time. This approach also resolved theMariological problem of Mary receiving the title ofTheotokos for under this scenario she is the "Mother of God".[91]
During theReformation,John Calvin argued that Jesus was not sanctified to be "God manifested as Incarnate" (Deus manifestatus in carne) only due to his virgin birth, but through the action of the Holy Spirit at the instant of his birth. Thus Calvin argued that Jesus was exempt from original sin because he was sanctified at the moment of birth so that his generation was without blemish; as generation was blemishless before thefall of Adam.[92]
In the 1st and 2nd centuries, theLord's Day (Sunday) was the earliest Christian celebration and included a number of theological themes. In the 2nd century, theResurrection of Jesus became a separate feast asEaster and in the same centuryEpiphany began to be celebrated in the Churches of the East on January 6.[109] The celebration of the feast of theMagi on January 6 may relate to a pre-Christian celebration for the blessing of theNile in Egypt on January 5, but this is not historically certain.[110] The festival of the Nativity which later turned into Christmas was a 4th-century feast in theWestern Church notably in Rome and North Africa, although it is uncertain exactly where and when it was first celebrated.[111]
The earliest source stating December 25 as the date of birth ofJesus wasHippolytus of Rome (170–236), written very early in the 3rd century, based on the assumption that the conception of Jesus took place at theSpring equinox which he placed on March 25, and then added nine months.[112] There is historical evidence that by the middle of the 4th century the Christian churches of the East celebrated the birth andBaptism of Jesus on the same day, on January 6, while those in the West celebrated a Nativity feast on December 25 (perhaps influenced by theWinter solstice); and that by the last quarter of the 4th century, the calendars of both churches included both feasts.[113] The earliest suggestions of a feast of the Baptism of Jesus on January 6 during the 2nd century comes fromClement of Alexandria, but there is no further mention of such a feast until 361 whenEmperor Julian attended a feast on January 6 in the year 361.[113]
TheChronography of 354 illuminated manuscript compiled in Rome includes an early reference to the celebration of a Nativity feast. In a sermon delivered inAntioch on December 25,c. 386,John Chrysostom provides specific information about the feast there, stating that the feast had existed for about 10 years.[113] By around 385 the feast for the birth of Jesus was distinct from that of the Baptism and was held on December 25 in Constantinople, Nyssa and Amaseia. In a sermon in 386,Gregory of Nyssa specifically related the feast of Nativity with that of the martyrdom ofSaint Stephen, celebrated a day later. By 390 the feast was also held inIconium on that day.[113]
Pope Leo I established a feast of the "Mystery of Incarnation" in the 5th century, in effect as the first formal feast for the Nativity of Jesus. PopeSixtus III then instituted the practice ofMidnight Mass just before that feast.[114] The feast was celebrated in Jerusalem by the 6th century,[115] when EmperorJustinian declared Christmas to be a legal holiday.[116]
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the theological importance of the Nativity of Jesus was coupled with an emphasis on the loving nature of thechild Jesus in sermons by figures such asJean Gerson. In his sermons Gerson emphasized the loving nature of Jesus at his Nativity, as well as his cosmic plan for the salvation of mankind.[117]
By the early part of the 20th century, Christmas had become a "cultural signature" of Christianity and indeed of the Western culture even in countries such as the United States which are officially non-religious. By the beginning of the 21st century these countries began to pay more attention to the sensitivities of non-Christians during the festivities at the end of the calendar year.[118]
Early Christians viewed Jesus as "the Lord" and the wordKyrios appears over 700 times in theNew Testament, referring to him as such.[119] The use of the wordKyrios in theSeptuagint Bible also assigned to Jesus theOld Testament attributes of an omnipotent God.[119] The use of the termKyrios, and hence the Lordship of Jesus, pre-dated thePauline epistles, but Paul expanded and elaborated on the topic.[119]
Pauline writings established among early Christians theKyrios image, and attributes of Jesus as not only referring to his eschatological victory, but to him as the "divine image" (Greekεἰκών,eikōn) in whose face the glory of God shines forth. This image persisted among Christians as the predominant perception of Jesus for a number of centuries.[120] More than any other title,Kyrios defined the relationship between Jesus and those who believed in him as Christ: Jesus was their Lord and Master who was to be served with all their hearts and who would one day judge their actions throughout their lives.[121]
The lordship attributes associated with theKyrios image of Jesus also implied his power over all creation.[122][123] Paul then looked back and reasoned that the final lordship of Jesus was prepared from the very beginning, starting withpre-existence and the Nativity, based on his obedience as the image of God.[124] Over time, based on the influence ofAnselm of Canterbury,Bernard of Clairvaux and others, theKyrios image of Jesus began to be supplemented with a more "tender image of Jesus", and theFranciscan approach to popular piety was instrumental in establishing this image.[123]
The 13th century witnessed a major turning point in the development of a new "tender image of Jesus" within Christianity, as theFranciscans began to emphasize the humility of Jesus both at his birth and his death. The construction of the Nativity scene byFrancis of Assisi was instrumental in portraying a softer image of Jesus that contrasted with the powerful and radiant image at theTransfiguration, and emphasized how God had taken a humble path to his own birth.[125] As theBlack Death raged in medieval Europe, the twomendicant orders ofFranciscans andDominicans helped the faithful cope with tragedies. One element of the Franciscan approach was the emphasis on the humility of Jesus and the poverty of his birth: the image of God was the image of Jesus, not a severe and punishing God, but himself humble at birth and sacrificed at death.[126] The concept that the omnipotent Creator would set aside all power in order to conquer the hearts of men by love and that he would have been helplessly placed in a manger was as marvelous and as touching to the believers as the sacrifice of dying on the cross in Calvary.[127]
Thus by the 13th century the tender joys of the Nativity of Jesus were added to the agony of hisCrucifixion and a whole new range of approved religious emotions was ushered in, with wide-ranging cultural impacts for centuries thereafter.[127] The Franciscans approached both ends of this spectrum of emotions. On one hand the introduction of the Nativity scene encouraged the tender image of Jesus, while on the other hand Francis of Assisi himself had a deep attachment to the sufferings of Jesus on the Cross and was said to have received thestigmata as an expression of that love. The dual nature of Franciscan piety based both on joy of Nativity and the sacrifice atCalvary had a deep appeal among city dwellers and as the Franciscan Friars travelled these emotions spread across the world, transforming theKyrios image of Jesus to a more tender, loving, and compassionate image.[127] These traditions did not remain limited to Europe and soon spread to the other parts of the world such as Latin America, thePhilippines and the United States.[128][129]
According to ArchbishopRowan Williams, this transformation, accompanied by the proliferation of the tender image of Jesus inMadonna and Child paintings, made an important impact within the Christian ministry by allowing Christians to feel the living presence of Jesus as a loving figure "who is always there to harbor and nurture those who turn to him for help".[130][131]
Hymns, art and music
Canticles appearing in Luke
Luke's Nativity text has given rise to four well-knowncanticles: theBenedictus and theMagnificat in the first chapter, and theGloria in Excelsis and theNunc dimittis in the second chapter.[132] These "Gospel canticles" are now an integral part of the liturgical tradition.[133] The parallel structure in Luke regarding the births ofJohn the Baptist and Jesus, extends to the three canticlesBenedictus (Song of Zechariah), theNunc dimittis and theMagnificat.[134]
TheMagnificat, in Luke 1:46–55,[135] is spoken by Mary and is one of the eight most ancient Christianhymns, perhaps the earliestMarian hymn.[136] TheBenedictus, in Luke 1:68–79,[137] is spoken byZechariah, while theNunc dimittis, in Luke 2:29–32,[138] is spoken bySimeon.[139] The traditionalGloria in Excelsis is longer than the opening line presented in Luke 2:14,[140] and is often called the "Song of the Angels" given that it was uttered by the angels in theAnnunciation to the Shepherds.[141]
The three canticlesBenedictus,Nunc Dimittis and theMagnificat, if not originating in the Gospel of Luke, may have their roots in the earliest Christian liturgical services in Jerusalem, but their exact origins remain unknown.[142]
One of the most visible traditions during the Christmas season is the display of manger scenes depicting the Nativity, usually in the form of statues or figurines, in private homes, businesses and churches, either inside or outside the building. This tradition is usually attributed toFrancis of Assisi[143] who was described as creating such a display atGreccio, Italy, in 1223[144][145] as related by St. Bonaventure in hisLife of Saint Francis of Assisi written around 1260.[146]
Before the tradition of building and displaying manger scenes developed, there were paintings depicting the subject. The earliest artistic depictions of the Nativity were in thecatacombs and onsarcophagi in Rome. Asgentile visitors, the Magi were popular in these scenes, representing the significance of the arrival of theMessiah to all peoples. The ox and ass were also taken to symbolize the Jews and the gentiles, and have remained a constant since the earliest depictions. Mary was soon seated on a throne as the Magi visited.[147]
Depictions of the Nativity soon became a normal component of cycles in art illustrating both theLife of Christ and theLife of the Virgin. Nativity images also carry the message of redemption: God's unification with matter forms the mystery of the Incarnation, a turning point in the Christian perspective onSalvation.[148]
In theEastern Church paintedicons of the Nativity often correspond to specifichymns to Mary, e.g. to theKontakion: "The Virgin today bringeth forth the Transubstantial, and the eart offereth a cave to the Unapproachable."[149] In many Eastern icons of Nativity (often accompanied by matching hymnody) two basic elements are emphasized. First the event portrays the mystery of incarnation as a foundation for the Christian faith, and the combined nature of Christ as divine and human. Secondly, it relates the event to the natural life of the world, and its consequences for humanity.[149]
Like 1st-century Jews, early Christians rejected the use of musical instruments in religious ceremonies and instead relied on chants andplainsong leading to the use of the terma cappella (in the chapel) for these chants.
One of the earliest Nativity hymns wasVeni redemptor gentium composed byAmbrose of Milan in the 4th century. By the beginning of the 5th century, the Spanish poetPrudentius had written "From the Heart of the Father" where the ninthstanza focused on the Nativity and portrayed Jesus as the creator of the universe. In the 5th century the Gallic poetSedulius composed "From the lands that see the Sun arise" in which the humility of the birth of Jesus was portrayed.[147] TheMagnificat, one of the eight most ancient Christianhymns and perhaps the earliestMarian hymn, is based on theAnnunciation.[136][139]
Romanus the Melodist had a dream of the Virgin Mary the night before the feast of the Nativity, and when he woke up the next morning, composed his first hymn "On the Nativity" and continued composing hymns (perhaps several hundred) to the end of his life.[150] Re-enactments of Nativity, which are now calledNativity plays, were part of thetroparionhymns in theliturgy ofByzantine Rite churches, fromSophronius of Jerusalem in the 7th century.[151] By the 13th century, theFranciscans had encouraged a strong tradition of popular Christmas songs in the native languages.[152] Christmas carols in English first appear in a 1426 work ofJohn Awdlay, aShropshire chaplain, who lists twenty-five "caroles of Cristemas".[153]
The largest body of musical works about Christ in which he does not speak are about the Nativity. A large body ofliturgical music, as well as a great deal of para-liturgical texts, carols and folk music exist about the Nativity of Jesus. Christmas carols havecome to be viewed as a cultural-signature of the Nativity of Jesus.[154]
Most musical Nativity narrations are not biblical and did not come about until church music assimilated opera in the 17th century. However, thereafter there was a torrent of new music, such asHeinrich Schütz's 1660,Marc-Antoine Charpentier(Midnight Mass, Pastorals, Oratorio, instrumental music, 11 settings),The Christmas Story andBach'sChristmas Oratorio in the 18th century, as well asLisz's Christus,Berlioz'sL'Enfance du Christ (1850),Camille Saint-Saëns' Christmas Oratorio (1858), etc.[154]John Milton's classic 1629 poemOde on the Morning of Christ's Nativity was used by John McEwan in 1901.[154]
According to some scholars, the two Gospel accounts of the Nativity are historically accurate and do not contradict each other,[155] with similarities such as the birthplace of Bethlehem and thevirgin birth.George Kilpatrick andMichael Patella state that a comparison of the Nativity accounts of Luke and Matthew show common elements in terms of the virgin birth, the birth at Bethlehem, and the upbringing at Nazareth, and that although there are differences in the accounts of the Nativity in Luke and Matthew, a general narrative may be constructed by combining the two.[156][157] A number of biblical scholars have attempted to show how the text from both narratives can be interwoven as agospel harmony to create one account that begins with a trip from Nazareth to Bethlehem, where Jesus is born, followed by the flight to Egypt, and ending with a return to Nazareth.[158][159][160][161][162]
Neither Luke nor Matthew claims their birth narratives are based on direct testimony.[163]Raymond E. Brown suggested in 1973 that Joseph was the source of Matthew's account and Mary of Luke's, but modern scholars consider this "highly unlikely", given that the story emerged so late.[164]
Roman Catholic scholars, such asJohn L. McKenzie,Raymond E. Brown, andDaniel J. Harrington express the view that due to the scarcity of ancient records, a number of issues regarding the historicity of some Nativity episodes can never be fully determined, and that the more important task is deciding what the Nativity narratives meant to the early Christian communities.[165][166][167]
Critical analysis
Many scholars do not see the Luke and Matthew Nativity stories as historically factual,[4][1][2] regarding them as laced with theology and presenting two different accounts andgenealogies.[168][169][170][171] For instance, they point to Matthew's account of the appearance of an angel to Joseph in a dream; the wise men from the East; the massacre of the innocents; and the flight to Egypt, which do not appear in Luke, which instead describes the appearance of an angel to Mary; the Roman census; the birth in a manger; and the choir of angels appearing to the shepherds in the fields.[172][168][169][4][1][170][171][2] Sanders considers Luke's census, for which everyone returned to their ancestral home, not historically credible, as this was contrary to Roman practice; they would not have uprooted everyone from their homes and farms in the Empire by forcing them to return to their ancestral cities. Moreover, people were not able to trace their own lineages back 42 generations.[1] More generally, according toKarl Rahner the gospels show little interest in synchronizing the episodes of the birth or subsequent life of Jesus with the secular history of the age.[5] As a result, modern scholars do not use much of the birth narratives for historical information.[168][170] Nevertheless, they are considered to contain some useful biographical information: Jesus being born near the end of the reign of Herod, during the reign of EmperorAugustus and his father being namedJoseph are considered historically plausible.[168][173]
Most modern scholars accept theMarcan priority hypothesis, that the Luke and Matthew accounts are based on theGospel of Mark, but that the birth narratives come from the evangelists' independent sources, known as theM source for Matthew and theL source for Luke, which were added later.[174]
WhileGéza Vermes andE. P. Sanders dismiss the accounts aspious fiction,Raymond E. Brown sees them as having been constructed from historical traditions which predate the Gospels.[175][176][177] According to Brown, there is no uniform agreement among scholars on the historicity of the accounts, e.g., most of those scholars who reject the historicity of the birth at Bethlehem argue for a birth at Nazareth, a few suggestCapernaum, and others have hypothesized locations as far away asChorazin.[178]Bruce Chilton and archaeologist Aviram Oshri have proposed a birth atBethlehem of Galilee, a site located 7 mi (11 km) from Nazareth at which remains dating to the time of Herod the Great have been excavated.[179][180] Armand P. Tarrech states that Chilton's hypothesis has no support in either the Jewish or Christian sources, although Chilton seems to take seriously the statement inLuke 2:4 that Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth, into Judaea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem.[181]
Many view the discussion of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than chronological timelines.[182][183][184][185] For instance, Matthew pays far more attention to the name of the child and its theological implications than the actual birth event itself.[186]
Nativity of Saint John the Baptist – Christian feast day celebrating the birth of John the BaptistPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
^A more complete account of the similarities and differences between the two can be found in Raymond E. Brown, "Birth of the Messiah", pp.34-35, and in Barbara Shellard, "New Light on Luke: Its Purpose, Sources and Literary Context", pp.79-81.
References
Citations
^abcdSanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. Sanders discusses both birth narratives in detail, contrasts them, and judges them not historical on pp. 85–88.
^abcMarcus Borg, 'The Meaning of the Birth Stories' in Marcus Borg, N T Wright,The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions (Harper One, 2007) page 179: "I (and most mainline scholars) do not see these stories as historically factual."
^Taylor, Joan E. (1993).Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 99–102.ISBN978-0-19-814785-5.
^Taylor, Joan E. (1993).Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 99–100.ISBN978-0-19-814785-5.
^Doggett 1992, p579: "Although scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before AD 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating".
^e.g.Luke 2:1 states that Jesus was born during the census of Quirinius, which Raymond Brown notes has led most scholars to conclude that Luke is in error. Brown, R.E. "An Adult Christ at Christmas: Essays on the Three Biblical Christmas Stories". Liturgical Press. 1978, p=17
^Paul L. Maier "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus And Virgin Mary." inChronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989ISBN0-931464-50-1 pp. 113–129
^New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 IBN 0-310-31201-9 pp. 121–124
^Molnar, M.R. (1999).The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi. Rutgers University Press. p. 104.ISBN978-0-8135-2701-7.
^abHelmut Köster, "Ancient Christian gospels: their history and development", Continuum International Publishing Group, (2004). pp. 307–308
^Menken, Maarten J. J. (2001). "The Sources of the Old Testament Quotation in Matthew 2:23".Journal of Biblical Literature.120 (3):451–68,467–8.doi:10.2307/3267902.JSTOR3267902.
^Smith, Gary (2007-08-30).The New American Commentary: Isaiah 1–33, Vol. 15A (New American Commentary). B&H Publishing Group. p. 268.ISBN978-0-8054-0115-8.
^The Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Undivided Church, trans H. R. Percival, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd Series, ed. P. Schaff and H. Wace, (repr. Grand Rapids MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1955), XIV, pp. 192–242
^The acts of the Council of Chalcedon by Council of Chalcedon, Richard Price, Michael Gaddis 2006ISBN0-85323-039-0 pp. 1–5
^The creed: the apostolic faith in contemporary theology by Berard L. Marthaler 2007ISBN0-89622-537-2 p. 114
^Essential theological terms by Justo L. González 2005ISBN0-664-22810-0 p. 120
^Doctrine and practice in the early church by Stuart George Hall 1992ISBN0-8028-0629-5 pp. 211–218
^Forbes, Bruce David (2008-11-13).Christmas: A Candid History.University of California Press. p. 27.ISBN978-0-520-25802-0.In 567 the Council of Tours proclaimed that the entire period between Christmas and Epiphany should be considered part of the celebration, creating what became known as the twelve days of Christmas, or what the English called Christmastide. On the last of the twelve days, called Twelfth Night, various cultures developed a wide range of additional special festivities. The variation extends even to the issue of how to count the days. If Christmas Day is the first of the twelve days, then Twelfth Night would be on January 5, the eve of Epiphany. If December 26, the day after Christmas, is the first day, then Twelfth Night falls on January 6, the evening of Epiphany itself. After Christmas and Epiphany were in place, on December 25 and January 6, with the twelve days of Christmas in between, Christians gradually added a period called Advent, as a time of spiritual preparation leading up to Christmas.
^Hynes, Mary Ellen (1993).Companion to the Calendar. Liturgy Training Publications. p. 8.ISBN978-1-56854-011-5.In the year 567 the church council of Tours called the 13 days between December 25 and January 6 a festival season. Up until that time the only other joyful church season was the 50 days between Easter Sunday and Pentecost.
^Knight, Kevin (2012)."Christmas".The Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent. RetrievedDecember 15, 2014.The Second Council of Tours (can. xi, xvii) proclaims, in 566 or 567, the sanctity of the "twelve days" from Christmas to Epiphany, and the duty of Advent fast; that of Agde (506), in canons 63–64, orders a universal communion, and that of Braga (563) forbids fasting on Christmas Day. Popular merry-making, however, so increased that the "Laws of King Cnut", fabricated c. 1110, order a fast from Christmas to Epiphany.
^Hill, Christopher (2003).Holidays and Holy Nights: Celebrating Twelve Seasonal Festivals of the Christian Year. Quest Books. p. 91.ISBN978-0-8356-0810-7.This arrangement became an administrative problem for the Roman Empire as it tried to coordinate the solar Julian calendar with the lunar calendars of its provinces in the east. While the Romans could roughly match the months in the two systems, the four cardinal points of the solar year—the two equinoxes and solstices—still fell on different dates. By the time of the first century, the calendar date of the winter solstice in Egypt and Palestine was eleven to twelve days later than the date in Rome. As a result the Incarnation came to be celebrated on different days in different parts of the Empire. The Western Church, in its desire to be universal, eventually took them both—one became Christmas, one Epiphany—with a resulting twelve days in between. Over time this hiatus became invested with specific Christian meaning. The Church gradually filled these days with saints, some connected to the birth narratives in Gospels (Holy Innocents' Day, December 28, in honor of the infants slaughtered by Herod; St. John the Evangelist, "the Beloved," December 27; St. Stephen, the first Christian martyr, December 26; the Holy Family, December 31; the Virgin Mary, January 1). In 567, the Council of Tours declared the twelve days between Christmas and Epiphany to become one unified festal cycle.
^Bunson, Matthew (October 21, 2007)."Origins of Christmas and Easter holidays".Eternal Word Television Network (EWTN).Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. RetrievedDecember 17, 2014.The Council of Tours (567) decreed the 12 days from Christmas to Epiphany to be sacred and especially joyous, thus setting the stage for the celebration of the Lord's birth not only in a liturgical setting but in the hearts of all Christians.
^The Church of England Magazine, Volume 49. J. Burns. 1860. p. 369.
^Kennedy, Rodney Wallace; Hatch, Derek C (27 August 2013).Baptists at Work in Worship.Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 147.ISBN978-1-62189-843-6.There are a variety or worship practices that enable a congregation to celebrate Advent: lighting an advent wreath, a hanging of the greens service, a Chrismon tree, and an Advent devotional booklet.
^Geddes, Gordon; Griffiths, Jane (2002).Christian Belief and Practice. Heinemann. p. 102.ISBN9780435306915.Carol singing is a common custom during the Christmas season. Many Christians form groups and go from house to house singing carols. The words of the carols help to pass on the message of Christmas to others.
^Kubesh, Katie; McNeil, Niki; Bellotto, Kimm.The 12 Days of Christmas. In the Hands of a Child. p. 16.The Twelve Days of Christmas, also called Twelvetide, are also associated with festivities that begin on the evening of Christmas Day and last through the morning of Epiphany. This period is also called Christmastide[...] one early American tradition was to make a wreath on Christmas Eve and hang it on the front door on Christmas night. The wreath stayed on the front door through Epiphany. Some families also baked a special cake for the Epiphany. Other Old Time Traditions from around the world include: Giving gifts on Christmas night only. Giving gifts on the Twelfth Night only. Giving gifts on each night. On the Twelfth Night, a Twelfth Night Cake or King Cake is served with a bean or pea baked in it. The person who finds the bean or pea in his or her portion is a King of Queen for the day.
^Collins, Ace (2010).Stories Behind the Great Traditions of Christmas. Zondervan. pp. 139–141.ISBN9780310873884.
^Bharati, Agehanada (1 January 1976).Ideas and Actions. Walter de Gruyter. p. 454.ISBN9783110805871.These were services of worship held in Christian churches at Christmastide...
^Nair, Malini (15 December 2013)."Cakewalk in Allahabad".The Times of India. Retrieved28 March 2015.Around early December, an unusual kind of pilgrim starts to take the Prayag Raj from Delhi to Allahabad: the devout worshipper of the Allahabadi Christmas cake. This is no elegant western pudding – it is redolent with desi ghee, petha, ginger, nutmeg, javitri, saunf, cinnamon, something called cake ka jeera and marmalades from Loknath ki Galli. All this is browned to perfection at a bakery that has acquired cult status – Bushy's on Kanpur Road. The ancient city has had a great baking tradition. It could be because Allahabad has a sizeable population of Christians.
^Michelin (10 October 2012).Germany Green Guide Michelin 2012–2013. Michelin. p. 73.ISBN9782067182110.Advent – The four weeks before Christmas are celebrated by counting down the days with an advent calendar, hanging up Christmas decorations and lightning an additional candle every Sunday on the four-candle advent wreath.
^Normark, Helena (1997)."Modern Christmas". Graphic Garden. Retrieved9 April 2014.Christmas in Sweden starts with Advent, which is the await for the arrival of Jesus. The symbol for it is the Advent candlestick with four candles in it, and we light one more candle for each of the four Sundays before Christmas. Most people start putting up the Christmas decorations on the first of Advent.
^Rice, Howard L.; Huffstutler, James C. (1 January 2001).Reformed Worship. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 197.ISBN978-0-664-50147-1.Another popular activity is the "Hanging of the Greens," a service in which the sanctuary is decorated for Christmas.
^Espín, Orlando O.; Nickoloff, James B., eds. (2007).An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies. Liturgical Press. p. 237.ISBN978-0-8146-5856-7.
^Trexler, Richard C. (1997).The journey of the Magi: meanings in history of a Christian story. p. 9.ISBN0-691-01126-5.
^Vischer, Lukas (2002).Christian worship in Reformed Churches past and present. pp. 400–401.ISBN0-8028-0520-5.
^Miles, Clement,Christmas customs and traditions, Dover 1976,ISBN0-486-23354-5, pp. 31–37
^Miles, Clement,Christmas customs and traditions, Dover 1976,ISBN0-486-23354-5, pp. 47–48
^abcJesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, Volume 1 by James Leslie Houlden 2003ISBN1-57607-856-6 pp. 631–635
^Mark D. RobertsCan We Trust the Gospels?: Investigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke and JohnGood News Publishers, 2007 p. 102
^Kilpatrick, George Dunbar (2007).The Origins of the Gospel According to St. Matthew. G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers.ISBN978-0-86516-667-7. p. 54
^The Gospel according to Luke by Michael Patella 2005ISBN0-8146-2862-1 pp. 9–10
^abBrown, Raymond Edward (1999-05-18).The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke (The Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library). Yale University Press. p. 36.ISBN978-0-300-14008-8.
^abcJeremy CorleyNew Perspectives on the Nativity Continuum International Publishing Group, 2009 p. 22.
^Bruce M. Metzger, Michael D. Coogan,The Oxford Guide to People & Places of the Bible. Oxford University Press US, 2004. p. 137
^Funk, Robert W. and theJesus Seminar.The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Birth & Infancy Stories" pp. 497–526.
^Hurtado, Larry W. (June 2003).Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans. pp. 319–320.ISBN978-0-8028-6070-5.
Allen, O. Wesley Jr. (2009)."Luke". In Petersen, David L.; O'Day, Gail R. (eds.).Theological Bible Commentary. Westminster John Knox Press.ISBN9781611640304.
Fuller, Reginald H. (2001)."Biblical Theology". In Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (eds.).The Oxford Guide to Ideas & Issues of the Bible. Oxford University Press.ISBN9780195149173.
Levison, J.; Pope-Levison, P. (2009)."Christology". In Dyrness, William A.; Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti (eds.).Global Dictionary of Theology. InterVarsity Press.ISBN9780830878116.
Saldarini, Anthony (2003)."Matthew".Eerdmans commentary on the Bible.ISBN978-0802837110., inDunn, James D.G.; Rogerson, John William (2003).Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans.ISBN978-0-8028-3711-0.
Van de Sandt, H.W.M. (2005)."Introduction".Matthew and the Didache: Two Documents from the Same Jewish-Christian Milieu ?. Royal Van Gorcum.ISBN978-9023240778., inVan de Sandt, H.W.M, ed. (2005).Matthew and the Didache. Royal Van Gorcum&Fortress Press.ISBN978-90-232-4077-8.
Gundry, Robert H.Matthew a Commentary on his Literary and Theological Art. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982.
Gundry, Robert H. "Salvation in Matthew."Society of Biblical Literature – 2000 Seminar Papers. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000.
Hill, David.The Gospel of Matthew. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981
Jones, Alexander.The Gospel According to St. Matthew. London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1965.
Levine, Amy-Jill. "Matthew."Women's Bible Commentary. Carol A. Newsom and Sharon H. Ringe, eds. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998.
Schaberg, Jane.Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theological Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives (Biblical Seminar Series, No 28) Sheffield Academic Press (March 1995)ISBN1-85075-533-7
Schweizer, Eduard.The Good News According to Matthew. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975
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