Thebirds-of-paradise are members of thefamilyParadisaeidae of the orderPasseriformes. They are found mainly inNew Guinea, as well as easternAustralia and theMoluccas. The family has 45 species in 17genera. The members of this family are perhaps best known for theplumage of the males of the species, the majority of which aresexually dimorphic. The males of these species tend to have very long, elaborate feathers extending from the beak, wings, tail, or head. For the most part, they are confined to denserainforest habitats. The diet of all species is dominated by fruit and to a lesser extentarthropods. The birds-of-paradise have a variety of breeding systems, ranging frommonogamy tolek-type[2]polygamy.
The family Paradisaeidae is introduced (as Paradiseidae) in 1825 withParadisaea as thetype genus by the English naturalistWilliam Swainson.[3][a][b] For many years the birds-of-paradise were treated as being closely related to thebowerbirds. Today while both are treated as being part of the Australasian lineageCorvida, the two are now thought to be only distantly related. The closest evolutionary relatives of the birds-of-paradise are the crow and jay familyCorvidae, the monarch flycatchersMonarchidae, and the Australian mudnestersStruthideidae.[9]
A 2009 study examining themitochondrial DNA of all species to examine the relationships within the family and to its nearest relatives estimated that the family emerged 24 million years ago, earlier than previous estimates. The study identified fiveclades within the family, and placed the split between the first clade, which contains the monogamousmanucodes andparadise-crow, and all the other birds-of-paradise, to be 10 million years ago. The second clade includes theparotias and theKing of Saxony bird-of-paradise. The third clade provisionally contains several genera, includingSeleucidis, theDrepanornis sicklebills,Semioptera,Ptiloris, andLophorina, although some of these are questionable. The fourth clade includes theEpimachus sicklebills,Paradigalla, and the astrapias. The final clade includes theCicinnurus and theParadisaea birds-of-paradise.[10]
The exact limits of the family have been the subject of revision as well. The three species ofsatinbird (the generaCnemophilus andLoboparadisea) were treated as a subfamily of the birds-of-paradise, Cnemophilinae. In spite of differences in the mouth, foot morphology, and nesting habits they remained in the family until a 2000 study moved them to a separate family closer to the berrypeckers and longbills (Melanocharitidae).[11] The same study found that theMacgregor's bird-of-paradise was actually a member of the large Australasianhoneyeater family. In addition to these three species, a number of systematically enigmatic species and genera have been considered potential members of this family. The two species in the genusMelampitta, also from New Guinea, have been linked with the birds-of-paradise,[12] but their relationships remain uncertain, more recently being linked with the Australian mudnesters.[9] Thesilktail ofFiji has been linked with the birds-of-paradise many times since its discovery, but never formally assigned to the family. Recent molecular evidence now places the species with thefantails.[13]
Hybrid birds-of-paradise may occur when individuals of different species, that look similar and have overlapping ranges, confuse each other for their own species and crossbreed.
WhenErwin Stresemann realised that hybridisation among birds-of-paradise might be an explanation as to why so many of the described species were so rare, he examined many controversial specimens and, during the 1920s and 1930s, published several papers on his hypothesis. Many of the species described in the late 19th and early 20th centuries are now generally considered to be hybrids, though some are still subject to dispute; their status is not likely to be settled definitely without genetic examination of museum specimens, which will come soon in summer 2021 in North America, South America, Africa, Europe, Asia, and Australia, and some birds in an aviary inCentral Park Zoo.[citation needed][needs update]
Birds-of-paradise are closely related to thecorvids. Birds-of-paradise range in size from theking bird-of-paradise at 50 g (1.8 oz) and 15 cm (5.9 in) to thecurl-crested manucode at 44 cm (17 in) and 430 g (15 oz). The maleblack sicklebill, with its long tail, is the longest species at 110 cm (43 in). In most species, the tails of the males are larger and longer than those of the females, the differences ranging from slight to extreme. The wings are rounded and, in some species, structurally modified on the males in order to make sound. There is considerable variation in the family with regard tobill shape. Bills may be long and decurved, as in the sicklebills and riflebirds, or small and slim like theAstrapias. As with body size, bill size varies between the sexes, although species where the females have larger bills than the males are more common, particularly in the insect-eating species.[9]
Plumage variation between the sexes is closely related to the breeding system. The manucodes and paradise-crow, which are socially monogamous, aresexually monomorphic. So are the two species ofParadigalla, which are polygamous. All these species have generally black plumage with varying amounts of green and blueiridescence.[9] The female plumage of the dimorphic species is typically drab to blend in with their habitat, unlike the bright attractive colours found on the males. Younger males of these species have female-like plumage, and sexual maturity takes a long time, with the full adult plumage not being obtained for up to seven years. This affords the younger males protection from predators of more subdued colours and also reduces hostility from adult males.[9]
The centre of bird-of-paradisediversity is the large island ofNew Guinea; all but two genera are found in New Guinea and Australia. Those other two are the monotypic generaLycocorax andSemioptera, both of which are endemic to theMaluku Islands, to the west of New Guinea. Of the four riflebirds in the genusPtiloris, two are endemic to the coastal forests of easternAustralia, one occurs in both Australia and New Guinea, and one is only found in New Guinea. The only other genus to have a species outside New Guinea isPhonygammus, one representative of which is found in the extreme north ofQueensland. The remaining species are restricted to New Guinea and some of the surrounding islands. Many species have very small ranges, particularly those with restricted habitat types such as mid-montane forest (like theblack sicklebill) or island endemics (like theWilson's bird-of-paradise).[9]
The majority of birds-of-paradise live in tropical forests, includingrainforests, swamps, andmoss forests,[9] nearly all of them solitary tree dwellers.[15] Several species have been recorded in coastalmangroves.[16] The southernmost species, theparadise riflebird ofAustralia, lives in sub-tropical and temperate wet forests. As a group themanucodes are the most plastic in their habitat requirements; in particular, theglossy-mantled manucode, which inhabits both forest and open savanna woodland.[9] Mid-montane habitats are the most commonly occupied habitat, with thirty of the forty species occurring in the 1,000–2,000 m (3,300–6,600 ft) altitudinal band.[16]
The diet of the birds-of-paradise is dominated by fruit and arthropods, although small amounts of nectar and small vertebrates may also be taken. The ratio of the two food types varies by species, with fruit predominating in some species, and arthropods dominating the diet in others. The ratio of the two will affect other aspects of the behaviour of the species; for example,frugivorous species tend to feed in the forest canopy, whereasinsectivores may feed lower down in the middle storey. Frugivores are more social than the insectivores, which are more solitary andterritorial.[9]
Even the birds-of-paradise that are primarily insect eaters will still take large amounts of fruit. The family is overall an important seed disperser for the forests of New Guinea, as they do not digest the seeds. Species that feed on fruit will range widely searching for fruit, and while they may join other fruit-eating species at a fruiting tree, they will not associate with them otherwise and will not stay with other species for long. Fruit is eaten while perched and not in the air, and birds-of-paradise are able to use their feet as tools to manipulate and hold their food, allowing them to extract certain capsular fruit. There is some niche differentiation in fruit choice by species and any one species will only consume a limited number of fruit types compared to the large choice available. For example, thetrumpet manucode andcrinkle-collared manucode will eat mostly figs, whereas theLawes's parotia focuses mostly on berries and thegreater lophorina andRaggiana bird-of-paradise take mostly capsular fruit.[9]
A male Victoria's riflebird displays and is inspected by a female.
Most species have elaborate mating rituals, with at least eight species exhibitinglek mating systems,[17] including the genusParadisaea. Others, such as theCicinnurus andParotia species, have highly ritualised mating dances. Across the family (Paradisaeidae), female preference is incredibly important in shaping the courtship behaviors of males and, in fact, drives the evolution of ornamental combinations of sound, color, and behavior.[18] Males arepolygamous in thesexually dimorphic species, butmonogamous in at least some of the monomorphic species.Hybridisation is frequent in these birds, suggesting the polygamous species of bird of paradise are very closely related despite being in different genera. Many hybrids have been described as new species in the past,[19] and doubt remains regarding whether some forms, such asRothschild's lobe-billed bird-of-paradise, are valid.[20]
Birds-of-paradise build their nests from soft materials, such as leaves, ferns, and vine tendrils, typically placed in a tree fork.[21] The typical number of eggs in eachclutch varies among the species and is not known for every species. For larger species, it is almost always just one egg, but smaller species may produce clutches of 2–3 eggs.[22] Eggs hatch after 16–22 days, and the young leave the nest at between 16 and 30 days of age.[21]
Societies of New Guinea often use bird-of-paradise plumes in theirdress and rituals, and the plumes were popular in Europe in past centuries as adornment for ladies'millinery. Hunting for plumes andhabitat destruction have reduced some species to endangered status; habitat destruction due todeforestation is now the predominant threat.[9]
Best known are the members of the genusParadisaea, including thetype species, thegreater bird-of-paradise,Paradisaea apoda. This species was described from specimens brought back to Europe from trading expeditions in the early sixteenth century. These specimens had been prepared by native traders by removing their wings and feet so that they could be used as decorations. This was not known to the explorers, and in the absence of information, many beliefs arose about them. They were briefly thought to be the mythicalphoenix. The often footless and wingless condition of the skins led to the belief that the birds never landed but were kept permanently aloft by their plumes. The first Europeans to encounter their skins were the voyagers inFerdinand Magellan'scircumnavigation of theEarth.[23]Antonio Pigafetta wrote that "The people told us that those birds came from the terrestrial paradise, and they call them bolon diuata, that is to say, 'birds of God'."[24] This is the origin of both the name "bird of paradise" and the specific nameapoda – without feet.[25] An alternate account byMaximilianus Transylvanus used the term Mamuco Diata, a variant of Manucodiata, which was used as a synonym for birds-of-paradise up to the 19th century.
Hunting of birds of paradise has occurred for a long time, possibly since the beginning of human settlement.[27] It is a peculiarity that among the most frequently hunted species, males start mating opportunistically even before they grow their ornamental plumage. This may be an adaptation to maintaining population levels in the face of hunting pressures, which have probably been present for hundreds of years.[28]
The naturalist, explorer, and authorAlfred Russel Wallace spent six years in the region, which he chronicled inThe Malay Archipelago (published in 1869). His expedition team shot, collected, and described many specimens of animals and birds, including the great, king, twelve-wired, superb, red, and six-shafted birds of paradise.[29]
Hunting to provide plumes for the millinery trade was extensive in the late 19th and early 20th century,[30] but today the birds have legal protection except for hunting at a sustainable level to fulfill the ceremonial needs of the local tribal population. In the case ofPteridophora plumes, scavenging from oldbowerbird bowers is encouraged.
The Indonesian Army has a Military Area Command named after "Cenderawasih", the local name for the bird.
The plume from the bird of paradise was used inShripech, the royal crown worn by theKing of Nepal, before the establishment of a republic. Now, the crown is housed inNaraynhiti Palace Museum.
^The authority for the family Paradisaeidae has traditionally been attributed to the Irish zoologistNicholas Aylward Vigors.[7] Vigors was constrained by thequinarian system and his use ofParadisaeae was not intended as a family name.[6][8]
^abcdefghijkFirth, Clifford B.; Firth, Dawn W. (2009). "Family Paradisaeidae (Birds-of-paradise)". In del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Christie, David (eds.).Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 14, Bush-shrikes to Old World Sparrows. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 404–459.ISBN978-84-96553-50-7.
^Irestedt, M.; Batalha-Filho, H.; Ericson, P.G.P.; Christidis, L.; Schodde, R. (2017). "Phylogeny, biogeography and taxonomic consequences in a bird-of-paradise species complex,Lophorina–Ptiloris (Aves: Paradisaeidae)".Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society.181 (2):439–470.doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlx004.
^Honolulu Zoo"Birds of Paradise". Archived fromthe original on 2011-05-15. Retrieved2011-02-03.,Birds of Paradise, Accessed Feb 3, 2011
^Beehler, Bruce; Pruett-Jones, Stephen G. (1983). "Display dispersion and diet of birds of paradise: a comparison of nine species".Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology.13 (3):229–238.doi:10.1007/bf00299927.ISSN0340-5443.S2CID21374280.
^Wallace, Alfred Russel.The Malay Archipelago. London: Macmillan, 1869.
^Cribb, Robert (1997). "Birds of paradise and environmental politics in colonial Indonesia, 1890–1931". In Boomgaard, Peter; Columbijn, Freek; Henley, David (eds.).Paper landscapes: explorations in the environmental history of Indonesia. Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press. pp. 379–408.ISBN90-6718-124-2.
.jpg)
