Biobased economy,bioeconomy orbiotechonomy is an economic activity involving the use ofbiotechnology andbiomass in the production of goods, services, or energy. The terms are widely used by regional development agencies, national and international organizations, and biotechnology companies. They are closely linked to the evolution of the biotechnology industry and the capacity to study, understand, and manipulate genetic material that has been possible due to scientific research and technological development. This includes the application of scientific and technological developments to agriculture, health, chemical, and energy industries.[1][2]
The terms bioeconomy (BE) and bio-based economy (BBE) are sometimes used interchangeably. However, it is worth to distinguish them: the biobased economy takes into consideration the production of non-food goods, whilst bioeconomy covers both bio-based economy and the production and use of food and feed.[3] More than 60 countries and regions have bioeconomy or bioscience-related strategies, of which 20 have published dedicated bioeconomy strategies in Africa, Asia, Europe, Oceania, and the Americas.[4]
The bioeconomy is emerging as a transformative force forsustainable development by integrating advances in biotechnology, digital technologies, andcircular economy principles. It leverages renewable biological resources such ascrops,forests,fish,animals, andmicroorganisms to produce food, materials, and energy while addressing global challenges such asclimate change, resource depletion, and food security. Technological advancements—such as gene editing, bioprocessing, and bioprinting—are driving innovation, enabling the creation of sustainable solutions across sectors. These include bioplastics, biofuels, and bio-based materials that reduce reliance onfossil fuels and minimizeenvironmental impact.
Additionally, initiatives like theEuropean Union’s Bioeconomy Strategy illustrate the global commitment to fostering bioeconomy development. The strategy focuses on regionalinnovation, circular systems, and reducingcarbon emissions. Notable examples includeBrazil’s sugarcane ethanol production, Finland’s wood-fiber packaging innovations, and theNetherlands’ algae-based bioplastics industry. These efforts highlight how bioeconomy practices can generate economic value while protecting ecosystems and promotingsustainability.
By aligning economic growth with environmental stewardship, the bioeconomy offers a path toward a sustainable, low-carbon future. This transformative approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of economic,environmental, and social systems, fostering long-term resilience and well-being.
Bioeconomy has large variety of definitions. The bioeconomy comprises those parts of the economy that use renewable biological resources from land and sea – such as crops, forests, fish, animals and micro-organisms – to produce food, health, materials, products, textiles and energy.[5][6] The definitions and usage does however vary between different areas of the world.[7]
An important aspect of the bioeconomy is understanding mechanisms and processes at the genetic, molecular, andgenomic levels, and applying this understanding to creating or improving industrial processes, developing new products and services, and producing new energy. Bioeconomy aims to reduce our dependence on fossil natural resources, to preventbiodiversity loss and to create new economic growth and jobs that are in line with the principles ofsustainable development.[8]
The term 'biotechonomy' was used byJuan Enríquez and Rodrigo Martinez at theGenomics Seminar in the 1997AAAS meeting. An excerpt of this paper was published inScience."[9]
In 2010, it was defined in the report "The Knowledge Based Bio-Economy (KBBE) in Europe: Achievements and Challenges" by Albrecht & al. as follows:The bio-economy is the sustainable production and conversion of biomass, for a range of food, health, fibre and industrial products and energy, where renewable biomass encompasses any biological material to be used as raw material.”[5]
According to a 2013 study, "the bioeconomy can be defined as an economy where the basic building blocks for materials, chemicals and energy are derived from renewable biological resources".[10]
TheFirst Global Bioeconomy Summit in Berlin in November 2015 defines bioeconomy as "knowledge-based production and utilization of biological resources, biological processes and principles to sustainably provide goods and services across all economic sectors". According to the summit, bioeconomy involves three elements: renewable biomass, enabling and converging technologies, and integration across applications concerning primary production (i.e. all living natural resources), health (i.e. pharmaceuticals and medical devices), and industry (i.e. chemicals, plastics, enzymes, pulp and paper, bioenergy).[11]
Enríquez and Martinez' 2002 Harvard Business School working paper, "Biotechonomy 1.0: A Rough Map of Biodata Flow", showed the global flow of genetic material into and out of the three largest public genetic databases:GenBank,EMBL andDDBJ. The authors then hypothesized about the economic impact that such data flows might have on patent creation, evolution of biotech startups and licensing fees.[12] An adaptation of this paper was published inWired magazine in 2003.[13]
The term 'bioeconomy' became popular from the mid-2000s with its adoption by theEuropean Union andOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development as a policy agenda and framework to promote the use of biotechnology to develop new products, markets, and uses of biomass.[14] Since then, both the EU (2012) and OECD (2006) have created dedicated bioeconomy strategies, as have an increasing number of countries around the world.[15] Often these strategies conflate the bioeconomy with the term 'bio-based economy'. For example, since 2005 the Netherlands has sought to promote the creation of a biobased economy.[16] Pilot plants have been started i.e. in Lelystad (Zeafuels), and a centralised organisation exists (Interdepartementaal programma biobased economy), with supporting research (Food & Biobased Research) being conducted.[17] OtherEuropean countries have also developed and implemented bioeconomy or bio-based economy policy strategies and frameworks.[10]
In 2012,president Barack Obama of theUSA announced intentions to encourage biological manufacturing methods, with a National Bioeconomy Blueprint.[18]
Global population growth and over consumption of many resources are causing increasing environmental pressure and climate change. Bioeconomy tackles with these challenges. It aims to ensure food security and to promote more sustainable natural resource use as well as to reduce the dependence on non-renewable resources, e.g. fossil natural resources and minerals. In some extent bioeconomy also helps economy to reduces greenhouse gas emissions and assists in mitigating and adapting to climate change.[19]
Organisms, ranging from bacteria over yeasts up to plants are used for production of enzymatic catalysis. Genetically modifiedbacteria have been used to produce insulin, artemisinic acid was made in engineeredyeast. Somebioplastics (based on polyhydroxylbutyrate or polyhydroxylalkanoates) are produced fromsugar using genetically modified microbes.[20]
Genetically modified organisms are also used for the production ofbiofuels. Biofuels are a type ofcarbon-neutral fuel.
Research is also being done towards CO2 fixation using a synthetic metabolic pathway. By genetically modifyingE. coli bacteria so as to allow them to consume CO2, the bacterium may provide the infrastructure for the future renewable production of food and green fuels.[21][22]
One of the organisms (Ideonella sakaiensis) that is able to break down PET (a plastic) into other substanceshas been genetically modified to break down PET even faster and also break down PEF. Once plastics (which are normally non-biodegradable) are broken down and recycled into other substances (i.e. biomatter in the case ofTenebrio molitor larvae) it can be used as an input for other animals.
Genetically modified crops are also used. Genetically modifiedenergy crops for instance may provide some additional advantages such as reduced associated costs (i.e. costs during the manufacturing process[23] ) and less water use. One example are trees have been genetically modified to either have less lignin, or to express lignin with chemically labile bonds.[24][25]
With genetically modified crops however, there are still somechallenges involved (hurdles to regulatory approvals, market adoption and public acceptance).[26]
According to European Union Bioeconomy Strategy updated in 2018 the bioeconomy covers all sectors and systems that rely on biological resources (animals, plants, micro-organisms and derived biomass, including organic waste), their functions and principles. It covers all primary production and economic and industrial sectors that base on use, production or processing biological resources fromagriculture,forestry,fisheries andaquaculture. The product of bioeconomy are typically food, feed and other biobased products, bioenergy and services based on biological resources. The bioeconomy aims to drive towardssustainability, circularity as well as the protection of the environment and will enhancebiodiversity.[27]
In some definitions, bioeconomy comprises also ecosystem services that are services offered by the environment, including binding carbon dioxide and opportunities for recreation. Another key aspect of the bioeconomy is not wasting natural resources but using and recycling them efficiently.[28]
According to EU Bioeconomy Report 2016, the bioeconomy brings together various sectors of the economy that produce, process and reuse renewable biological resources (agriculture, forestry, fisheries, food, bio-based chemicals and materials and bioenergy).[29]
Cellular agriculture focuses on the production ofagricultural products from cell cultures using a combination ofbiotechnology,tissue engineering,molecular biology, andsynthetic biology to create and design new methods of producing proteins, fats, and tissues that would otherwise come from traditional agriculture. Most of the industry is focused on animal products such as meat, milk, and eggs, produced in cell culture, an alternative to raising and slaughtering farmed livestock which is associated with substantial global problems regarding itsenvironmental impact (e.g.of meat production),animal welfare,food security andhuman health. Cellular agriculture is a field of thebiobased economy. The most well known cellular agriculture concept iscultured meat. (Full article...)
However, not all synthetic nutrition products are animal food products such as meat and dairy – for instance, as of 2021 there are also products ofsynthetic coffee that are reported to be close to commercialization.[30][31][32] Similar fields of research and production based on bioeconomy agriculture are:
Many of the foods produced with tools and methods of the bioeconomy may not be intended for human consumption but for non-human animals such as forlivestock feed,insect-based pet food orsustainable aquacultural feed. There are various startups and research teams around the world who use synthetic biology to create animal feed.[41]
Moreover,crops could be genetically engineered in ways that e.g. safely increase yields, reduce the need for pesticides or ease indoor production.
One example of a product highly specific to the bioeconomy that is widely available isalgae oil which is a dietary supplement that could substitute possibly less sustainable, larger-market-sharefish oil supplements.[42][43]
Vertical farming is the practice of growing crops in vertically and horizontally stacked layers.[44] It often incorporatescontrolled-environment agriculture, which aims to optimize plant growth, and soilless farming techniques such ashydroponics,aquaponics, andaeroponics.[44] Some common choices of structures to house vertical farming systems include buildings, shipping containers, underground tunnels, and abandoned mine shafts.
The modern concept of vertical farming was proposed in 1999 byDickson Despommier, professor of Public and Environmental Health at Columbia University.[45] Despommier and his students came up with a design of a skyscraper farm that could feed 50,000 people.[46] Although the design has not yet been built, it successfully popularized the idea of vertical farming.[46] Current applications of vertical farming coupled with other state-of-the-art technologies, such as specializedLED lights, have resulted in over 10 times the crop yield as would be received through traditional farming methods.[47] There have been several different means of implementing vertical farming systems into communities such as:Paignton,[48]Israel,[49]Singapore,[50]Chicago,[51]Munich,[52]London,[53]Japan,[47] andLincolnshire.[54]
The main advantage of utilizing vertical farming technologies is the increased crop yield that comes with a smaller unit area of land requirement.[55][56] The increased ability to cultivate a larger variety of crops at once because crops do not share the same plots of land while growing is another sought-after advantage. Additionally, crops are resistant to weather disruptions because of their placement indoors, meaning fewer crops lost to extreme or unexpected weather occurrences. Lastly, because of its limited land usage, vertical farming is less disruptive to the native plants and animals, leading to further conservation of the local flora and fauna.[57]
Vertical farming technologies face economic challenges with large start-up costs compared to traditional farms. They cannot grow all types of crops but can be cost-effective for high value products such as salad vegetables.[58] Vertical farms also face large energy demands due to the use of supplementary light like LEDs. The buildings also need excellent control of temperature, humidity and water supplies. Moreover, ifnon-renewable energy is used to meet these energy demands, vertical farms could produce more pollution than traditional farms orgreenhouses.
For example, there is ongoing research and development for indoor high-yield mechanisms.[67]
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Algaculture is a form ofaquaculture involving the farming of species ofalgae.[76]
The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category ofmicroalgae (also referred to asphytoplankton,microphytes, orplanktonic algae).Macroalgae, commonly known asseaweed, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation (this may change, however, with the advent of newer seaweed cultivators, which are basicallyalgae scrubbers using upflowing air bubbles in small containers, known as tumble culture).[77]
Commercial and industrial algae cultivation has numerous uses, including production ofnutraceuticals such asomega-3 fatty acids (as algal oil)[78][79][80] or natural foodcolorants anddyes,food,fertilizers,bioplastics, chemical feedstock (raw material), protein-rich animal/aquaculture feed,pharmaceuticals, andalgal fuel,[81] and can also be used as a means ofpollution control andnaturalcarbon sequestration.[82]
Global production of farmed aquatic plants, overwhelmingly dominated by seaweeds, grew in output volume from 13.5 million tonnes in 1995, to just over 30 million tonnes in 2016 and 37.8 million tonnes in 2022.[83][84] This increase was the result of production expansions led by China, followed by Malaysia, the Philippines, the United Republic of Tanzania, and the Russian Federation.[83]
Cultured microalgae already contribute to a wide range of sectors in the emerging bioeconomy.[85] Research suggests there are large potentials and benefits of algaculture for the development of a futurehealthy andsustainable food system.[75][82]![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg) | This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding to it.(October 2021) |
Biobased applications, research and development ofwaste management may form a part of the bioeconomy. Bio-basedrecycling (e-waste,[86]plastics recycling, etc.) is linked to waste management and relevant standards and requirements of production and products. Some of the recycling of waste may be biomining and some biomining could be applied beyond recycling.[87]
For example, in 2020, biotechnologists reported thegenetically engineered refinement and mechanical description of synergistic enzymes –PETase, first discovered in 2016, andMHETase ofIdeonella sakaiensis – for fasterdepolymerization ofPET and also of PEF, which may be useful fordepollution,recycling andupcycling of mixed plastics along with other approaches.[88][89][90] Such approaches may be more environmentally-friendly as well as cost-effective than mechanical and chemical PET-recycling, enabling circular plastic bio-economy solutions via systems based on engineered strains.[91] Moreover,microorganisms could be employed to mine useful elements from basalt rocks viabioleaching.[92][93]
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In 2020, the global industry fordietary supplements was valued at $140.3 billion by a "Grand View Research" analysis.[94] Certain parts of thehealth economy may overlap with the bioeconomy,[95][96] includinganti-aging- andlife extension-related products and activities, hygiene/beauty products,[96]functional food,[96] sports performance related products and bio-based tests (such as of one'smicrobiota) and banks (such asstool banks[97] including oral "super stool" capsules[98]) and databases (mainlyDNA databases), all of which can in turn be used forindividualized interventions, monitoring as well as for the development of new products. The pharmaceutical sector, including the research and development of newantibiotics, can also be considered to be a bioeconomy sector.
The forest bioeconomy is based onforests and their natural resources, and covers a variety of different industry and production processes. Forest bioeconomy includes, for example, the processing of forestbiomass to provide products relating to, energy, chemistry, or the food industry. Thus, forest bioeconomy covers a variety of different manufacturing processes that are based on wood material and the range of end products is wide.[99]
Besides different wood-based products, recreation, nature tourism and game are a crucial part of forest bioeconomy.Carbon sequestration andecosystem services are also included in the concept of forest bioeconomy.[99]
Pulp, paper, packaging materials and sawn timber are the traditional products of theforest industry. Wood is also traditionally used in furniture and construction industries. But in addition to these, as a renewable natural resource, ingredients from wood can be valorised into innovativebioproducts alongside a range of conventional forest industry products. Thus, traditional mill sites of large forest industry companies, for example in Finland, are in the process of becomingbiorefineries. In different processes, forest biomass is used to produce textiles, chemicals, cosmetics, fuels, medicine, intelligent packaging, coatings, glues, plastics, food and feed.[99][100]
The blue bioeconomy covers businesses that are based on the sustainable use of renewable aquatic resources as well water related expertise areas. It covers the development and marketing of blue bioeconomy products and services. In that respect, the key sectors include business activities based on water expertise and technology, water-based tourism, making use of aquatic biomass, and the value chain of fisheries. Furthermore, the immaterial value of aquatic natural resources is also very high. Water areas have also other values beyond being platforms of economic activities. It provides human well-being, recreation and health.[101]
According to the European Union the blue bioeconomy has the focus on aquatic or marine environments, especially, on novel aquaculture applications, including non-food, food and feed.[102]
In the EuropeanReport on the Blue Growth Strategy - Towards more sustainable growth and jobs in the blue economy (2017) the blue bioeconomy is defined differently to the blue economy. Theblue economy means the industries that are related to marine environment activities, e.g. shipbuilding, transport, coastal tourism, renewable energies (such as off-shore windmills), living and non-living resources.[103]
The bioeconomy also includesbioenergy,biohydrogen,biofuel andalgae fuel.
According toWorld Bioenergy Association 17.8 % out of gross final energy consumption was covered with renewable energy. Among renewable energy sources, bioenergy (energy from bio-based sources) is the largest renewable energy source. In 2017, bioenergy accounted for 70% of renewable energy consumption.[104]
The role of bioenergy varies in different countries and continents. In Africa it is the most important energy sources with the share of 96%. Bioenergy has significant shares in energy production in the Americas (59%), Asia (65%) and Europe (59%). The bioenergy is produced out of a large variety ofbiomass from forestry, agriculture and waste and side streams of industries to produce useful end products (pellets, wood chips, bioethanol, biogas and biodiesel) for electricity, heat and transportation fuel around the world.[104]
Biomass is a renewable natural resource but it is still a limited resource. Globally there are huge resources, but environmental, social and economic aspects limit their use.Biomass can play an important role for low-carbon solutions in the fields of customer supplies, energy, food and feed. In practice, there are many competing uses.[99]
The biobased economy uses first-generationbiomass (crops), second-generation biomass (crop refuge), and third-generation biomass (seaweed, algae). Several methods of processing are then used (inbiorefineries) to gather the most out of the biomass. This includes techniques such as
Anaerobic digestion is generally used to producebiogas, fermentation of sugars producesethanol, pyrolysis is used to producepyrolysis-oil (which is solidified biogas), and torrefaction is used to create biomass-coal.[105] Biomass-coal[citation needed] and biogas is then burnt for energy production, ethanol can be used as a (vehicle)-fuel, as well as for other purposes, such asskincare products.[106]
Biobased energy can be used tomanage intermittency of variable renewable energy like solar and wind.
Woodchips have been traditionally used as solid fuel forspace heating or in energy plants to generateelectric power fromrenewable energy. The main source of forest chips in Europe and in most of the countries[which?] have been logging residues. It is expected that the shares of stumps and roundwood will increase in the future.[107] As of 2013[update] in the EU, the estimates for biomass potential for energy, available under current 2018 conditions including sustainable use of the forest as well as providing wood to the traditional forest sectors, are: 277 million m3, for above ground biomass and 585 million m3 for total biomass.[108]
The newer fuel systems for heating use either woodchips orwood pellets. The advantage of woodchips is cost, the advantage of wood pellets is the controlled fuel value. The use of woodchips in automated heating systems, is based on a robust technology.[107]
The size of the woodchips, moisture content, and the raw material from which the chips are made are particularly important when burning wood chips in small plants. Unfortunately, there are not many standards to decide the fractions of woodchip. However, as of March 2018, The American National Standards Institute approved AD17225-4 Wood Chip Heating Fuel Quality Standard. The full title of the standard is: ANSI/ASABE AD17225-4:2014 FEB2018 Solid Biofuels—Fuel Specifications and classes—Part 4: Graded wood chips.[109] One common chip category is the GF60 which is commonly used in smaller plants, including small industries, villas, and apartment buildings. "GF60" is known as "Fine, dry, small chips". The requirements for GF60 are that the moisture is between 10 and 30% and the fractions of the woodchips are distributed as follows: 0–3.5mm: <8%, 3.5–30mm: <7%, 30–60 mm: 80–100%, 60–100 mm: <3%, 100–120 mm: <2%.[107]
The energy content in one cubic metre is normally higher than in one cubic metre wood logs, but can vary greatly depending on moisture. The moisture is decided by the handling of the raw material. If the trees are taken down in the winter and left to dry for the summer (with teas in the bark and covered so rain can't reach to them), and is then chipped in the fall, the woodchips' moisture content will be approximately 20–25%. The energy content, then, is approximately 3.5–4.5kWh/kg (~150–250 kg/cubic metre).[107]
Coal power plants have been converted to run on woodchips, which is fairly straightforward to do, since they both use an identicalsteam turbineheat engine, and the cost of woodchip fuel is comparable tocoal.[107]
Solidbiomass is an attractive fuel for addressing the concerns of theenergy crisis andclimate change, since the fuel is affordable, widely available, close tocarbon neutral and thus climate-neutral in terms of carbon dioxide (CO2), since in the ideal case only the carbon dioxide which was drawn in during the tree's growth and stored in the wood is released into the atmosphere again.[107]Woodchips are similar towood pellets, in that the movement and handling is more amenable to automation than cord wood, particularly for smaller systems. Woodchips are less expensive to produce than wood pellets, which must be processed in specialized facilities. While avoiding the costs associated with refinement, the lowerdensity and higher moisture content of woodchips reduces theircalorific value, substantially increasing the feedstock needed to generate an equivalent amount of heat. Greater physical volume requirements also increase the expense and emissions impact of trucking, storing and/or shipping the wood.
Woodchips are less expensive thancord wood, because the harvesting is faster and more highly automated. Woodchips are of greater supply, partly because all parts of a tree can be chipped, whereas small limbs and branches can require substantial labor to convert to cord wood. Cord wood generally needs to be "seasoned" or "dry" before it can be burned cleanly and efficiently. On the other hand, woodchip systems are typically designed to cleanly and efficiently burn "green chips" with very high moisture content of 43–47% (wet basis).[110] (seegasification andwoodgas)For economic reasons, the processing of the biomass is done according to a specific pattern (a process called cascading). This pattern depends on the types of biomass used. The whole of finding the most suitable pattern is known asbiorefining. A general list shows the products with high added value and lowest volume of biomass to the products with the lowest added value and highest volume of biomass:[111]
Recent studies have highlighted the potential of traditionally used plants, in providing value-added products in remote areas of the world. A study conducted on tobacco plants proposed a non-exhaustive list of compounds with potential economic interest that can be sourced from these plants.[112]
Bioproducts or bio-based products are products that are made frombiomass. The term “bioproduct” refers to a wide array of industrial and commercial products that are characterized by a variety of properties, compositions and processes, as well as different benefits and risks.[113]
Bio-based products are developed in order to reduce dependency on fossil fuels and non-renewable resources. To achieve this, the key is to develop new bio-refining technologies to sustainably transform renewable natural resources into bio-based products, materials and fuels, e.g.[114]
Synthetic biology can beused for creating nanoparticles which can be usedfor drug-delivery as well as for other purposes.[115] Complementing research and development seeks to and has createdsynthetic cells that mimics functions of biological cells. Applications include medicine such asdesigner-nanoparticles that make blood cells eat away—from the inside out—portions ofatherosclerotic plaque that cause heart attacks.[116][117][118] Synthetic micro-droplets foralgal cells or synergistic algal-bacterial multicellularspheroidmicrobial reactors, for example, could be used to producehydrogen ashydrogen economy biotechnology.[119][120]
Activities and technologies for bio-basedclimate change adaptation could be considered as part of the bioeconomy. Examples may include:
There is a potential for biobased-production of building materials (insulation, surface materials, etc.) as well as new materials in general (polymers, plastics, composites, etc.).[96] Photosynthetic microbial cells have been used as a step to synthetic production ofspider silk.[33][34]
Bioplastics are not just one single material. They comprise a whole family of materials with different properties and applications. According to European Bioplastics, a plastic material is defined as a bioplastic if it is eitherbio-based plastic,biodegradable plastic, or is a material with both properties. Bioplastics have the same properties as conventional plastics and offer additional advantages, such as a reduced carbon footprint or additional waste management options, such ascomposting.[125]
Bioplastics are divided into three main groups:[125]
Additionally, new materials such as PLA, PHA,cellulose or starch-based materials offer solutions with completely new functionalities such asbiodegradability and compostability, and in some cases optimized barrier properties. Along with the growth in variety of bioplastic materials, properties such as flexibility, durability, printability, transparency, barrier, heat resistance, gloss and many more have been significantly enhanced.[125]
Bioplastics have been made from sugarbeet, by bacteria.[126][127]
Bio-based materials have been developed or used for packaging without plastics, especially for use-cases in which packaging can't be phased-out, such as for food preservation.[134]
A plant proteins-basedbiodegradable packaging alternative to plastic was developed based on research aboutspider silk which is known for its high strength and similar on the molecular level.[135][136]
Researchers at theAgricultural Research Service are looking into using dairy-based films as an alternative to petroleum-based packaging. Instead of being made ofsynthetic polymers, these dairy-based films would be composed of proteins such ascasein andwhey, which are found in milk. The films would bebiodegradable and offer better oxygen barriers than synthetic, chemical-based films. More research must be done to improve the water barrier quality of the dairy-based film, but advances in sustainable packaging are actively being pursued.[137]
Sustainable packaging policy cannot be individualized by a specific product. Effective legislation would need to include alternatives to many products, not just a select few; otherwise, the positive impacts of sustainable packing will not be as effective as they need in order to propel a significant reduction of plastic packaging. Finding alternatives can reduce greenhouse gas emissions from unsustainable packaging production and reduce dangerous chemical by-products of unsustainable packaging practices.[138]
Thetextile industry, or certain activities and elements of it, could be considered to be a strong global bioeconomy sector. Textiles are produced from natural fibres, regenerated fibres and synthetic fibres (Sinclair 2014). The natural fibre textile industry is based on cotton, linen, bamboo, hemp, wool, silk, angora, mohair and cashmere.[139]
Activities related to textile production and processing that more clearly fall under the domain of the bioeconomy are developments such as thebiofabrication of leather-like material using fungi,[140][141][142] fungal cotton substitutes,[143] and renewable fibers from fungal cell walls.[144]
Textile fibres can be formed in chemical processes from bio-based materials. These fibres are called bio-based regenerated fibres. The oldest regenerated fibres are viscose and rayon, produced in the 19th century. The first industrial processes used a large amount of wood as raw material, as well as harmful chemicals and water. Later the process of regenerating fibres developed to reduce the use of raw materials, chemicals, water and energy.[139]
In the 1990s the first more sustainable regenerated fibres, e.g. Lyocell, entered the market with the commercial name of Tencel. The production process uses wood cellulose and it processes the fibre without harmful chemicals.[139]
The next generation of regenerated fibres are under development. The production processes use less or no chemicals, and the water consumption is also diminished.[145]
The bioeconomy has largely been associated with visions of "green growth".[146] A study found that a "circular bioeconomy" may be "necessary to build a carbon neutral future in line with the climate objectives of theParis Agreement".[147] However, some are concerned that with a focus or reliance on technological progress a fundamentally unsustainable socioeconomic model might be maintained rather than be changed.[148] Some are concerned it that may not lead to a ecologization of the economy but to an economization of the biological, "the living" and caution that potentials of non-bio-based techniques to achieve greater sustainability need to be considered.[148] A study found that the, as of 2019, current EU interpretation of the bioeconomy is "diametrically opposite to the original narrative of Baranoff and Georgescu-Roegen that told us that expanding the share of activities based on renewable resources in the economy would slow down economic growth and set strict limits on the overall expansion of the economy".[149] Furthermore, some caution that "Silicon Valley and food corporations" could use bioeconomy technologies forgreenwashing andmonopoly-concentrations.[150] The bioeconomy, its potentials, disruptive new modes of production and innovations may distract from the need for systemic structural socioeconomic changes[151][152] and provide a false illusion oftechnocapitalistutopianism/optimism that suggeststechnological fixes[10] may make it possible to sustain contemporary patterns and structures, pre-empting structural changes.
Many farmers depend on conventional methods of producing crops and many of them live in developing economies.[31] Cellular agriculture for products such as synthetic coffee could, if the contemporary socioeconomic context (the socioeconomic system's mechanisms such as incentives and resource distribution mechanisms like markets) remains unaltered (e.g. in nature, purposes, scopes, limits and degrees), threaten their employment and livelihoods as well as the respective nation's economy and social stability. A study concluded that "given the expertise required and the high investment costs of the innovation, it seems unlikely that cultured meat immediately benefits the poor in developing countries" and emphasized that animal agriculture is often essential for the subsistence for farmers in poor countries.[153] However, not only developing countries may be affected.[154]
Observers worry that the bioeconomy will become as opaque and free of accountability as the industry it attempts to replace, that is the currentfood system. The fear is that its core products will be mass-produced, nutritionally dubious meat sold at the homogeneous fast-food joints of the future.[150]
The medical community has warned thatgene patents can inhibit the practice of medicine and progress of science.[155] This can also apply to other areas where patents and private intellectual property licenses are being used, often entirely preventing the use and continued development of knowledge and techniques for many years or decades. On the other hand, some worry that without intellectual property protection as the type of R&D-incentive, particularly to current degrees and extents, companies would no longer have the resources or motives/incentives to perform competitive, viable biotech research – as otherwise they may not be able to generate sufficient returns from initial R&D investment or less returns than from other expenditures that are possible.[156] "Biopiracy" refers to "the use of intellectual property systems to legitimize the exclusive ownership and control over biological resources and biological products that have been used over centuries in non-industrialized cultures".[157]
Rather than leading to sustainable, healthy, inexpensive, safe, accessible food being produced with little labor locally – afterknowledge- andtechnology transfer and timely, efficientinnovation – the bioeconomy may lead to aggressivemonopoly-formation and exacerbated inequality.[158][159][150][additional citation(s) needed] For instance, while production costs may be minimal, costs – including of medicine[160] – may be high.
It has been argued that public investment would be a tool governments should use to regulate and license cellular agriculture. Private firms and venture capital would likely seek to maximise investor value rather than social welfare.[150] Moreover, radical innovation is considered to be more risky, "and likely involves more information asymmetry, so that private financial markets may imperfectly manage these frictions". Governments may also help to coordinate "since several innovators may be needed to push the knowledge frontier and make the market profitable, but no single company wants to make the early necessary investments". And investments in the relevant sectors seem to be a bottleneck hindering the transition toward a bioeconomy.[161]Governments could also help innovators that lack the network "to naturally obtain the visibility and political influence necessary to obtain public funds" and could help determine relevant laws.[162]By establishing supporting infrastructure for entrepreneurial ecosystems they can help creating a beneficial environment for innovative bioeconomy startups.[163] Enabling such bioeconomy startups to act on the opportunities provided through the bioeconomy transformation further contributes to its success.[164]
Biopunk – so called due to similarity withcyberpunk – is a genre of science fiction that often thematizes the bioeconomy as well as its potential issues and technologies. The novelThe Windup Girl portrays a society driven by a ruthless bioeconomy andailing under climate change.[165] In the more recent novelChange Agent prevalent black market clinics offer wealthy people unauthorizedhuman genetic enhancement services and e.g. custom narcotics are 3D-printed locally or smuggled withsoft robots.[166][167]Solarpunk is another emerging genre that focuses on the relationship between human societies and the environment and also addresses many of the bioeconomy's issues and technologies such as genetic engineering, synthetic meat and commodification.[168][169]
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