 Photograph of the Beulé Gate from the south-west | |
  Beulé Gate Location of the Beulé Gate in central Athens | |
| Location | Acropolis of Athens, Greece |
|---|---|
| Coordinates | 37°58′17.9″N23°43′28.6″E / 37.971639°N 23.724611°E /37.971639; 23.724611 |
| History | |
| Material | Marble |
| Founded | 3rd–4th century CE |
| Periods | Roman |
| Cultures | Classical Greece |
| Site notes | |
| Excavation dates | 1852–53 |
| Archaeologists | Charles Ernest Beulé |
| Public access | Yes |
 Interactive map of Acropolis, Athens | |
| Part of | Acropolis of Athens |
| Reference | 404 |
| Inscription | 1987 (11thSession) |
TheBeulé Gate (French pronunciation:[bœ'le]) is afortified gate, constructed in theRoman period, leading to thePropylaia of theAcropolis of Athens. It was constructed almost entirely from repurposed materials (spolia) taken from theChoragic Monument of Nikias, a monument built in the fourth century BCE and demolished between the second and fourth centuries CE. The dedicatory inscription from Nikias's monument is still visible in theentablature of the Beulé Gate.
The gate was integrated into thePost-Herulian Wall, a late Roman fortification built around the Acropolis in the years followingthe city's sack by the GermanicHeruli people in 267 or early 268 CE. Its construction marked the beginning of a new phase in the Acropolis's use, in which it came to be seen more as a potential defensive position than in the religious terms that had marked its use in theclassical period. During themedieval period, the gate was further fortified and closed off, before being built over with abastion inOttoman times.
The monument was discovered by the French archaeologistCharles Ernest Beulé in 1852, and excavated between 1852 and 1853. Its discovery was greeted enthusiastically in France among the scholarly community and the press, though archaeologists and Greek commentators criticised the aggressive means – particularly the use of explosives – by which Beulé had carried out the excavation. In modern times, the gate has served primarily as an exit for tourists from the Acropolis.
The Beulé Gate is situated at the bottom of a monumental staircase, which led to thePropylaia approximately 37 m (121 ft 5 in) to the east.[1] The staircase was constructed in the later first century CE, possibly at the instigation of the emperorClaudius (r. 41–54 CE).[2] The gate includes twopylon-like towers, which project around 5 m (16 ft 5 in) from the structure.[3] These towers are joined by walls to the terraces above, including that of theTemple of Athena Nike.[4] The doorway is set into a marble wall and aligned with the main route through the Propylaia.[5]
The gate is almost 23 m (75 ft 6 in) wide, with a central part around 7 m (23 ft 0 in) in both height and width.[6] The area above the central doorway is decorated in theDoric order. It consists of anarchitrave inPentelic marble, topped with marblemetopes andtriglyphs made from a variety of limestone known asporos stone. Above the metopes and triglyphs is ageison withmutules, itself topped with anattic.[7] The doorway itself is 3.87 m (12 ft 8 in) high, 1.89 m (6 ft 2 in) wide at its base, and 1.73 m (5 ft 8 in) wide at the top.[6] Within the doorway is alintel added in the sixth century CE.[8]
The inscription visible on theentablature was originally the dedicatory inscription of theChoragic Monument of Nikias, a structure built shortly after 320 BCE to commemorate the Athenianchoregos Nikias and his victory in the choragic competitions of that year.[9] As arranged on Nikias's monument, it reads as follows:
Nikias's monument was built in the form of a Greek temple in the Doric order, consisting of a squarenaos with aprostyle,hexastylepronaos (that is, a front porch with apediment and six columns).[12] The inscription would originally have been placed across the architrave of Nikias's monument, and represents one of the latest such inscriptions fromHellenistic Athens. UnderDemetrios of Phaleron, who governed Athens between 317 and 307 BCE,sumptuary laws to control aristocrats' ostentatious spending caused the construction of choragic monuments to cease.[13] Throughout the remainder of the Hellenistic period, fashions in public art changed to favour statues of rulers and monumental buildings constructed by those rulers themselves.[14]
The gate's discoverer,Charles Ernest Beulé, erroneously believed the gate to have been the original entrance to the Acropolis.[15] Later research, beginning with that of Paul Graindor in 1914, established it as belonging to thelate Roman period (c. 284 – c. 476 CE), and most probably to the late third or early fourth centuries CE. Scholarly opinion remains divided as to precisely when in that period it was built.[16]
The Beulé Gate is constructed almost entirely from marble pieces (spolia) taken from the Choragic Monument of Nikias.[17] Nikias's monument was demolished at an uncertain date. In the 1880s,Wilhelm Dörpfeld suggested 161 CE, on the grounds of his belief that a foundation discovered underneath theOdeon of Herodes Atticus, constructed in that year, had originally belonged to the monument.[18] In 1910,William Bell Dinsmoor disproved Dörpfeld's hypothesis by demonstrating that the Nikias monument had originally stood at the eastern end of theStoa of Eumenes.[19] Dinsmoor alternatively suggested that the demolition may have dated to the late third or early fourth centuries CE,[20] a view since established as the scholarly consensus.[21] More precise proposed dates for the gate's construction include the reign of the Roman emperorValerian (r. 253–260 CE)[22] and the period around thesacking of Athens by theHeruli in 267 or early 268 CE – either slightly before the sack or around ten years afterwards.[23]
The Beulé Gate shows architectural similarities with thePost-Herulian Wall, such as the use of alternatingcourses of differently coloured marble.[24] The Post-Herulian Wall was built around the Acropolis about two decades after the sack of 267 or 268.[25] Although the gate's date is not absolutely certain, it is generally agreed that the demolition of the Choragic Monument of Nikias, the construction of the Post-Herulian Wall and the building of the Beulé Gate were approximately contemporary.[4] Most modern scholars consider that the gate was built in the aftermath of the sack.[26] Judith Binder has suggested that the gate may have been constructed byDexippos,[4] the Athenian general who successfully defended the Acropolis against the Heruli during their invasion.[27]
A stone reused in the Ottoman fortifications of the Acropolis preserves an inscription commemorating Flavius Septimius Marcellinus for having constructed "the gateway to the Acropolis from his own resources".[28] The inscription gives Marcellinus's rank aslamprotatos (Ancient Greek:λαμπρότατος), a title equivalent to the Latinclarissimus and customarily used, after the early second century CE, to refer to men ofsenatorial rank.[29][a] It also identifies him as a formeragonothetes (ἀγωνοθέτης), a title given in Roman Athens to the officials responsible for funding and organising religious festivals, including thePanathenaia, theDionysia, and games in honour of the imperial family.[31] The inscription has been dated to the mid-fourth century CE, after 325; it is generally, though not universally, assumed to be associated with the construction of the Beulé Gate.[32]
The archaeologist and philologistWalter Miller suggested in 1893 that the gate may have been built to replace an older, now-lost gateway, which he hypothesised would have been less strongly fortified.[33] The Beulé Gate is believed to have been intended to safeguard the approach leading to theKlepsydra, a spring on the Acropolis which provided it with a safe supply of water in case of siege.[34]
.jpg)
During the demolition of the Choragic Monument of Nikias, some parts of the structure – thegeisa – were numbered while stillin situ, allowing them to be correctly reassembled within the gate.[35] The Doricfrieze of the Choragic Monument, built from limestone and marble, was reconstructed along the top of the Beulé Gate, though the architrave of the Choragic Monument, which originally formed a single horizontal beam, was divided into two parts, one above and one below the gate's frieze.[24]Jeffrey M. Hurwit has described the re-use of the Choragic Monument as a "twice-toldClassicism", since the original monument was itself modelled on the Propylaia, and so its re-use created architectural harmony between the Beulé Gate and the Propylaia to which it led.[36]
Hurwit has called the construction of the gate a "turning point" in the Acropolis's history, suggesting that it represented a renewed emphasis on the Acropolis's role as a strategic fortification rather than as a religious sanctuary — making the site now "a fortress with temples".[37] During the third or fourth century CE, a wooden roof was constructed along the gate's inner face; under the emperorJustinian (r. 527–565) another lintel was fitted to the gate's doorway, reducing its height.[8] The gate remained the main entrance to the Acropolis during theMiddle Byzantine period (c. 843 – c. 1261): during this time, another storey with a wooden roof was added to the whole structure, and abarrel vault, running from north to south, was constructed against the inner (eastern) side of the towers and the gate wall.[38] Tasos Tanoulas has suggested that this work may have been carried out byLeo II, theMetropolitan of Athens between 1060 and 1069.[39]
In 1204, after theFourth Crusade, the Byzantine Empirewas partitioned betweenVenice and the leaders of the crusade. Athens became the centre of theDuchy of Athens, a lordship initially held by the Burgundian[b] aristocratOthon de la Roche.[41] Between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries, the city'sFrankish rulers gradually refortified the Acropolis.[42] The Beulé Gate was closed off during the reign of Othon's descendants, thede la Roche family, which lasted until 1308; a vaulted structure was also built in the gate's north tower to brace it during the same period.[43] The medieval period also saw the closing off of the Propylaia,[42] which was further reinforced with theFrankish Tower at an uncertain date.[44]
The gate's previous role as an entrance to the Acropolis was taken over by the gate situated at the western foot of the large classical bastion on which the Temple of Athena Nike was built.[45] The medieval notary Niccolò da Martoni, who visited Athens in February 1395, wrote an account suggesting that the Beulé Gate was still visible, though no longer used.[46] At some point in the Ottoman period (1458–1827), the gate's towers were heightened and abastion was constructed on top of it:[47][c] this bastion was visible in drawings made by the BritishantiquaryWilliam Gell in 1801–1806.[49] When Beulé excavated the bastion, he reported finding evidence that the gate had been damaged by gunpowder weapons before the bastion's construction.[50] By the nineteenth century, knowledge of the gate's existence was lost.[51]
.jpg)
The gate is named forCharles Ernest Beulé, a member of theFrench School at Athens, who discovered the gate in 1852.[51] The first of Athens's foreign schools of archaeology, the French School had been founded in 1846 with the aim of carrying out excavations and classical scholarship, as well as of enhancing French prestige, particularlyvis-à-vis British archaeology.[53] Beulé had joined the French School in 1849,[54] and discovered the gate while excavating the approach to the Propylaia under the direction ofKyriakos Pittakis, the GreekEphor General of Antiquities.[51] The historianJean-Michel Leniaud has called the excavation "the first of the great archaeological transformations" carried out on the Acropolis;[55] Tanoulas describes it as the most important archaeological project of the mid-nineteenth century at the site.[56]
The existence of a lower route to the Propylaia had become evident during the operations to clear and repair the monuments of the Acropolis following the end of theGreek War of Independence in 1829.[57] In 1846, the architect and archaeologistAuguste Titeux [fr] began to reveal the staircase leading up to the Propylaia, but archaeologists did not generally consider that there had been a second gateway below it.[57] Titeux died in 1846 with his work on the staircase unfinished:[57] in 1850, Pittakis completed the work of clearing it[58] and partially reconstructing the steps.[59]
Pittakis enlisted Beulé to assist with the removal of medieval and modern structures from the rest of the Propylaia area in 1852.[51] Beulé, against the prevailing scholarly opinion of his time, believed thatMnesikles, the architect of the Propylaia, had originally constructed a second gateway, and secured Pittakis's blessing as well as support fromAlexandre de Forth-Rouen, the French ambassador to Greece, to investigate his hypothesis.[57] On 16 May [O.S. 4 May],[d] the excavators discovered more steps leading towards the gate, and by 29 May [O.S. 17 May] it had become clear that they had found the edge of a fortified wall around the Acropolis, and within it a gateway.[61] The site was visited byKing Otto andQueen Amalia of Greece, and the discovery made Beulé's scholarly reputation.[61]
Beulé left Athens for France at the beginning of June, returning in December to direct renewed excavations, now focused on the gate.[61] On 5 January 1853 [O.S. 24 December 1852], work was temporarily halted when the Greek Minister for War ordered the excavators to leave, concerned that the excavation would destroy the Acropolis's defensive value in case of a future invasion; Beulé, with the support of the French embassy, was able to persuade the Greek authorities that the Acropolis had little military value anyway, and "would not hold out for twenty-four hours against an assault".[62]
When work was able to resume in 1853, the excavators encountered a particularly stubborn block ofmortar through which their tools could not penetrate. Beulé secured a batch of explosives from sailors of theStation du Levant,[62] a fleet of theFrench Navy tasked with patrolling theAegean Sea,[63] and used 150 lb (68 kg) of gunpowder to blast through the block. Contemporary archaeologists criticised his actions, as did the Greek newspapers, one of which had previously accused Beulé of wanting to blow up everything on the Acropolis.[64] Pittakis, who had been watching the operation, was almost struck by a fragment of the debris, which pierced his hat:[65] reports circulated in the aftermath that he had been killed.[62]
By 12 April [O.S. 31 March] 1853, the two towers had been fully revealed, followed by the gateway itself on 13 April [O.S. 1 April].[62] The excavations finished that month; the monument was formally opened in a ceremony on 11 May [O.S. 28 April]. Beulé fixed a commemorative stone, recovered during the excavations, to the right of the gate's entrance. He had it inscribed in Ancient Greek:[67]
Beulé also reported having inscribed a French translation of the same inscription below the Greek text.[70] The discovery of the gate prompted scholarly celebration in France, and was reported with enthusiasm in the French press. The diplomat andphilhelleneJean Baelan [sv] has written that the excavation turned Beulé into "the standard-bearer for national honour in the field of archaeology".[71] In recognition of Beulé's discovery, theAcadémie Française made the Acropolis of Athens the topic for its Grand Prize for Poetry[e] in 1853, which was won byLouise Colet.[72] The British historianThomas Henry Dyer praised Beulé's discovery, but correctly questioned his assertion that the gate had been built under Mnesikles, and criticised Beulé's commemorative inscription, calling it "somewhat vainglorious".[73]Ludwig Ross, who had preceded Pittakis as Ephor General, described the inscription as "an example of petty national and personal vanity" and predicted that it was likely to be stolen or removed by the Greeks.[74]
After its excavation, the Beulé Gate resumed its original function as a monumental gateway for the Acropolis.[55] In the 1960s, the main entrance was moved to the south-east side, leaving the Beulé Gate as primarily an exit.[5]
%2c_RP-F-F01148-BU.jpg)
_-_Ath%25C3%25A8nes_-_M%25C3%25A9diath%25C3%25A8que_de_l%2527architecture_et_du_patrimoine_-_APOR104697.jpg)
_crop.jpg)
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help).jpg)