Thepagan Slavs werepolytheistic, which means that they worshipped manygods andgoddesses. The gods of the Slavs are known primarily from a small number ofchronicles andletopises, or not very accurate Christiansermons againstpaganism. Additionally, more numerous sources in which Slavictheonyms are preserved include names, proper names, place names, folk holidays, and language, including sayings.
Information about Slavic paganism, including the gods, is scarce because Christian missionaries were not very interested in the spiritual life of theSlavs.[1] Also, no accounts written down directly by the pagan Slavs exist. During the Christianization missions, the deities, on the one hand, weredemonized to deter from worshipping them, on the other hand, their characteristics and functions were assumed by thesaints, which was supposed to make the new religion less alien.
Because of the small number of sources, there is no consensus among scholars of Slavic mythology on the extent of the worship of even the most important deities. Listed in this paragraph are those whose Panslavic range is most often recognized. In addition to these, the East SlavicMokosh (a presumed toponym in theCzech Republic), and the East SlavicStribog (toponyms inPoland) are sometimes indicated.
Based on the reconstructed myths around the figures ofPerun andVeles, some scholars believe that both of these gods are chief deities.[2] They are primarily found in theSlavic creation myth. According to some scholars, a pair of these gods prove "Slavicdualism", but there is no consensus on this either, and those who assume that such dualism in mythology may have existed, point out that Slavic dualism was probably not as extreme as in Christianity orZoroastrianism.
| Name | Image | Greek Myth | Details |
|---|---|---|---|
| Perun | Zeus | Perun is the god oflightning and thunder,[3] as well as of war,[4] and the patron of thedruzhina.[5] He is the etymological and functional continuator of the Proto-Indo-European thunder god*Perkʷunos, and shares many characteristics with otherthunder gods worshipped byIndo-Europeans.[6] He is mentioned most notably inPrimary Chronicle, where a grey-haired and golden-moustached statue of Perun is described in temple onOld Kyiv Hill, andThird Novogorod Chronicle, where his statue is described inPeryn,[7] and in many texts warning against paganism. His name survived in spells and in proper names.[8] Armed usually with an axe, hammer, or spear,[9] he fights chaos demons. His figure is preserved in folklore primarily in the form ofsaint Elijah andsaint George.[8] | |
| Veles | Hades | Veles is a god of multiple functions, such complexity making comparison with other deities difficult. Achthonic deity, he rules over theunderworld, to which, aspsychopomp he conducts the souls of the dead, leading them out into the meadows of the beyond. As the god of wealth, he is associated with the care of cattle (cattle rather than money being, in ancient times, the primary form of wealth). Furthermore, like the GermanicOdin he is the patron deity of poets and other artists and also of those who practice magic (poetry having been intimately connected with magic in the past).[10] The etymology of his name likely connects it with Slavic words associated with death. Mentioned primarily inPrimary Chronicle; his name also often appears in proper names. His animal incarnations are bull orox,dragon orzmey.[11] His figure is preserved in folklore primarily in the form ofsaint Nicholas and thedevil.[12] |
| Name | Image | Greek Myth | Details |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dazhbog | Apollo | Dazhbog is a sun god. His name, meaning "god of giving", may suggest that he was also a god of abundance.[13] He appears in thePrimary Chronicle, where he is described as the son ofSvarog, inThe Tale of Igor's Campaign,[14] as well as in folk songs and proper names. By some researchers he is identified withSvarozhits,[15] or is considered to be his brother.[16] | |
| Svarozhits |  | Hephaestus | Svarozhits is a fire god mentioned in minorEast Slavic texts.[17] He is also mentioned byBruno in a letter toKing Henry II and later inThietmar's Chronicle as the chief deity ofRethra, the main political center of theVeleti.[18] His name is generally translated as "son ofSvarog", less commonly as "little, young Svarog". Generally identified withRadegast, less commonly withDazhbog. |
| Name | Image | Greek Myth | Details |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dola | Tyche | Dola is the personification of fate and destiny.[19] Dola was assigned to a person at birth and stays with him for the rest of his life. It may be inherited from ancestors. It is generally invisible, but may have manifested in human or animal form.[20] The opposite of Dola, understood as good fortune, was Nedola, the personification of bad fortune. Etymologically related to the Slavic wordsdivide,part.[19] | |
| Mat Zemlya |  | Gaia | Mat Zemlya is a personification of the Earth appearing mainly inEast Slavic texts but remaining in mostSlavic languages.[21] Perhaps epithet ofMokosh. |
| Rod |  | Rod is a figure, spirit, or deity often mentioned in minorEast andSouth Slavic texts, generally along withRozhanitsy. Etymologically related to the Slavic words for "family", "kin", "giving birth", etc. Bloodless sacrifices were offered to him.[22] There is no consensus in scholarship about Rod's status in mythology. | |
| Rozhanitsy |  | Moirai | Rozhanitsy ("Givers of life"), Sudenitsy ("Givers of fate"), and Narechnitsy ("Givers of destiny") are female spirits or deities of fate. They appear in the plural or as a single entity. InEast andSouth Slavic sources they are often mentioned together withRod.[22] Their main function is to determine the child's fate for life,[23] then they leave an invisible mark on his forehead. Man's fate was symbolized by thethread of life, on the length of which, measured by the Rozhanitsy, depended the length of man's life. Bloodless sacrifices were offered to them.[22] |
| Zorya | Eos | Zorya is the personification of the dawn. She is the Slavic continuation of the Proto-Indo-European goddess of dawn*H₂éwsōs[24] and has many of her characteristics: she lives overseas on the island ofBujan,[25] opens the door for the Sun to go on its daily journey across the sky,[25] also has a golden boat. Zora can be a single figure, two figures, or three. She appears in Christianized prayers and orders. | |
| Zvezda | Zvezda, Utrenica, or Danica is the personification of the Morning Star or planetVenus as seen in the sky before sunrise. |
| Name | Image | Worshipped by | Greek Myth | Details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Svetovit |  | Rani | Svetovit is the chief god of the Slavic Rani. His cult is described byHelmold of Bosau andSaxo Grammaticus.[26] Theonym comes from the wordsvęt "holy, sacred" with the suffixvit "lord".[27] His main temple was located onArkona. Inside the temple was his statue, described by Saxo as a four-headed statue holding an ornate horn in his right hand; there was also a large sword and other artifacts.[28] The horn and white horse, dedicated to him, was used for divination.[27] Thetheocratic rule of his priests limited the rule ofknyaz.[29] | |
| Triglav |  | Polabians Pomeranians | Triglav is a god mentioned in theLife of St. Otto and in the chronicle describing the capture of SlavicBrenna. He had a golden statue whose eyes and mouth were covered. A black horse, which was used by preachers to foretell the future, and a holy oak were dedicated to him. The three heads may symbolize the tripartite division between heaven, earth, and the underworld.[30] | |
| Radegast | _cropped.png) | Polabians Redarians Moravians | Radegast is a god mentioned byAdam of Bremen, and the information is repeated byHelmold. He was to occupy the first place among the gods worshipped atRethra. Earlier sources state that the main god of Rethra wasSvarozhits, thus Radegast is considered to be a epithet of Svarozhits or a local variant of his cult. A white horse was dedicated to him, and he himself was depicted wearing armor and a helmet. It is generally believed that his name is composed of the wordsrad "glad" andgost "guest".[31] A modern statue of him is standing on the mountainRadhošť, which is also named after him. | |
| Yarovit | Circipanians Hobolians | Yarovit is a Polabian god mentioned in theLife of St. Otto, where a festival dedicated to him is described, for which the city was decorated. From the description and etymology, it is clear that he is a war god, and his temple contained a gold adorned shield. According to many researchers, Yarovit is identical to theEast SlavicYarylo.[32][33] | ||
| Zhiva | Polabians | Zhiva is a goddess mentioned byHelmold. According to him, next toRadagast andProne, she is the most important deity of the Slavs. Probably identical with thePolish deityŻywie mentioned byJan Długosz.[34] A theonym related to the wordživeti "to live". | ||
| Prone or Prove | Polabians | Proue is a distorted name of a god mentioned byHelmold. This theonym is interpreted in several different ways: some scholars translate the name asProve (from Slavic wordpravo "law"), while others translate the name asProne, a local variant ofPerun's name. Helmold makes it clear thatProue,[35] unlike other deities, did not have a statue, but an oak grove near Starogard, where courts were held every monday, was dedicated to him.[36] | ||
| Rugiaevit |  | Rani | Rugievit is a god mentioned bySaxo Grammaticus and in theKnýtlinga saga. He was worshipped inGardec onRügen, where his temple was located, as well asPorevit andPorenut. His statue was made of oak wood, had a head with seven faces, seven swords at his belt and an eighth in his hand. According to Saxo, he was a war deity, also associated with the sexual sphere.[37] The interpretation of his name remains a matter of debate. | |
| Porevit | Rani | Porevit is a god mentioned bySaxo Grammaticus and in theKnýtlinga saga. He was worshipped inGardec onRügen, where his temple was located, as well asRugieavit and Porenut. Statue of him had five heads, and importantly did not have any weapons. The meaning of the name is unclear, perhaps meaning "Lord of strength".[38] | ||
| Porenut | Rani | Porenut is a god mentioned bySaxo Grammaticus and in theKnýtlinga saga. He was worshipped inGardec onRügen, where his temple was located, as well asRugiaevit and Porevit. His idol had four faces and a fifth on his chest, which he held up with his hands. The etymology is debated.[38] | ||
| Chernoglav | Rani | Chernoglav is a god mentioned in theKnýtlinga saga. He is described there as a god of victory with a silver mustache.[39] | ||
| Podaga | Wagri | Podaga is a god who, according toHelmold, had his image inPlön. Meaning of the theonym is explained as "power, might". It was suggested that the namePodaga is identical withDługosz'sPogoda.[34] | ||
| Devana | Poles Lusatians | Devana is the goddess of wildlife, forests, the moon and hunting. Mentioned byJan Długosz as a Polish equivalent ofDiana. Devana, as Dživica, was also present in Lusatian folklore. She appears inSilesian customs together with Morana, which may indicate a double nature of these goddesses. Etymology of the name of the goddess is a subject of discussion. In Christian folklore, she may have been replaced by Our Lady of Thunder Candle. | ||
| Morana |  | Poles Czechs Slovaks Moravians | Morana is the goddess of vegetation, but also of death and winter. She was mentioned byJan Długosz as a Polish equivalent ofCeres. Burning or drowning Morana's image in the river is supposed to chase away winter and bring back spring, and this tradition is still alive in modern Poland, Slovakia, Moravia and parts of Bohemia. She appears inSilesian customs together with Devana, which may indicate the dual nature of these goddesses. |
| Name | Image | Worshipped by | Greek Myth | Details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stribog | East Slavs | Aeolus | Stribog is the god of the wind. Mentioned in thePrimary Chronicle andThe Tale of Igor's Campaign. He may also have been worshipped in Poland. His name is interpreted as the " spreading god".[40] | |
| Khors | East Slavs,West Slavs | Khors is a deity with unclear functions mentioned in thePrimary Chronicle andThe Tale of Igor's Campaign, as well as other minor sources.[41] For many years he was interpreted as a sun god, supported by the theory that the name is a loan from one of theIranian languages and means "Sun".[41] In recent years, this etymology has come under strong criticism, and a native etymological link to fertility is suggested instead.[42] His idol was allegedly located inPskov. | ||
| Mokosh |  | East Slavs PolesCzechs | Mokosh is a goddess mentioned in thePrimary Chronicle and other minor texts. She is generally interpreted asMother goddess. She appears in folklore as a creature with a large head and hands who shears sheep and spinsflax, also associated in some way with masturbation. Etymologically related to the wordmokrъ "wet".[43] In Christianity she is continued bySt. Paraskeva andSt. Anastasia.[44] | |
| Simargl |  | East Slavs | Simargl is a deity mentioned in thePrimary Chronicle, and mentioned in theSermon by One Who Loves Christ in two entities: Sim and Rgl. Although the sources do not indicate any functions of this god it is believed that he is associated with the care of plants, as indicated by the god's name, which was borrowed by the Slavs from the IranianSimurgh, a winged, dog-headed guardian of plants.[45] | |
| Svarog | South Slavs[46] | Hephaestus. | Svarog is a god mentioned in thePrimary Chronicle in a passage that is a Slavic translation of theChronicle ofJohn Malalas. This source depicts Svarog as the counterpart of the GreekHephaestus, and the father ofDazhbog. The function and etymology of the god are unclear: according to some scholars he is related to the Slavic wordsvar meaning "quarrel", while according to others he is related to theIndiansvar meaning "radiance", "sky", "sun". Based on etymology, interpreted as the smith god, or as the god of the sky.[47][48] | |
| Yarilo | East Slavs | Demeter | East Slavic ritual and ritual figure attested since the 18th century Interpreted as a deity of vegetation. |
There are two sources that mention a nameless Slavicchief god.Procopius of Caesarea in theGothic Wars describes the religion of theSouth Slavs:
Indeed, they believe that a single god, creator of the lightning bolt, is the sole lord of all things and they offer him sacrifices of cows and all manner of victims. The idea of destiny is unknown to them nor do they believe that it has any influence over men, but when death is at their heels because they have fallen sick or are preparing for war, they promise that, if spared, they will immediately offer a sacrifice in honour of the god in exchange for their life and, once they have been spared, they sacrifice whatever they have to hand and believe they have bought their salvation with this sacrifice.[49]
Greek original textθεὸν μὲν γὰρ ἕνα τὸν τῆς ἀστραπῆς δημιουργὸν ἁπάντων κύριον μόνον αὐτὸν νομίζουσιν εἶναι, καὶ θύουσιν αὐτῷ βόας τε καὶ ἱερεῖα πάντα· εἱμαρμένην δὲ οὔτε ἴσασιν οὔτε ἄλλως ὁμολογοῦσιν ἔν γε ἀνθρώποις ῥοπήν τινα ἔχειν, ἀλλ’ ἐπειδὰν αὐτοῖς ἐν ποσὶν ἤδη ὁ θάνατος εἴη, ἢ νόσῳ ἁλοῦσιν ἢ ἐς πόλεμον καθισταμένοις, ἐπαγγέλλονται μὲν, ἢν διαφύγωσι, θυσίαν τῷ θεῷ ἀντὶ τῆς ψυχῆς αὐτίκα ποιήσειν, διαφυγόντες δὲ θύουσιν ὅπερ ὑπέσχοντο, καὶ οἴονται τὴν σωτηρίαν ταύτης δὴ τῆς θυσίας αὐτοῖς ἐωνῆσθαι.[49]
Similar information, however, concerning theWest SlavicPolabians, appears inHelmold'sChronicle:
Within the multifarious aspect of the manifestations of their divinities, to which their fields, forests, sadness, and happiness are entrusted, they do not deny that there is one god in heaven who reigns above the others, that this is the only one responsible for celestial matters, and that the others obey him; each assuming a role, they come from his line and are more powerful the closer they are to said god.[50]
Latin original textInter multiformia uero deorum numina, quibus arua, siluas, tristicias atque uoluptates attribuunt, non-diffitentur unum deum in celis ceteris imperitantem, illum prepotentem celestia tantum curare, hos uero distributis officiis obsequentes de sanguine eius processisse et unumquemque eo prestantiorem, quo proximiorem illi deo deorum.[50]
It is unclear how reliably these accounts describe Slavic theology. Some scholars believe that these texts are Christian interpretations of the faith of the pagan Slavs; Helmold, writing about thegod of gods, clearly borrowed the term (deus deorum) from theBook of psalms (50:1). In the case of Procopius' text, for example,Aleksander Brückner argued that the text was a calque, an image with a Hellenized tinge imposed on Slavic paganism. Scholars who accept at least partial authenticity of these messages believe that they may convey information abouthenotheism, the Slavicdeus otiosus – a passive god who does not interfere directly in world affairs and whose commands are carried out by other gods. It is also possible that they may refer to the replacement of the passive sky god by a more active thunder god, just as the GreekUranus was replaced byZeus. Although Procopius and Helmold do not mention the names of these gods, whose names they probably did not know because oftaboos, it is generally believed thatPerun, orSvarog, was involved here.[51][52]
Cosmas of Prague describesCzech paganism in hisChronica Boemorum through theInterpretatio Romana: "Therefore, sacrifice to your gods anass so that they become your succour. Those who wish you to make this offering areJupiter, most important of the gods,Mars himself, his sisterBellona and the son-in law ofCeres (i.e.Pluto).[53]
In theChronicle,Thietmar describes the Christianization ofPomerania. In 1000, during thecongress of Gniezno,Reinbern was appointed bishop ofKołobrzeg. Thietmar further wrote that Reinbern "destroyed the temples of the idols, he burnt them, and, after anointing four stone idols of their demons with holy chrism, he threw them into the lake and then blessed the water to cleanse it".[54] Perhaps the passage in this message is about the sea god.[55]
