Thebenkan (冕冠;lit. 'crown') is a type of crown traditionally worn byJapanese emperors andcrown princes. It is also calledtama no kōburi (玉乃冠;lit. 'jeweled crown').[1]
In ancientJapan, emperors and nobles wore metal crowns made of gold, silver, and gilt bronze, influenced by the Korean peninsula.[citation needed] In the 8th century, emperors and crown princes began to wearbenkan with chains attached to the metal crown, influenced by the Chinesemianguan.[2] In addition, a sun-shaped ornament was added to the top of thebenkan, creating a uniquely Japanese style of crown.
After that, thebenkan was worn along with a ceremonial dress calledkon'e for accession andchōga (朝賀, New Year's greetings) ceremonies, but it was last worn for the accession ceremony ofEmperor Kōmei (1831–1867) in 1847, and has not been worn since.[3]
In addition tobenkan for the emperor, there ishōkan (宝冠;lit. 'precious crown') for the female emperor andnikkeikan (日形冠;lit. 'crown in the shape of the sun') for the infant emperor, each of which has a distinctive shape.
Thebenkan,hōkan, andnikkeikan crowns made in theEdo period (1603–1867) have each survived, but asimperial treasures (御物), these are not usually shown to the public. However, they are occasionally displayed to commemorate accession ceremonies.[4]
In ancient Japan, it was customary to use flowers, branches, and leaves of plants and trees as hair ornaments or to wrap them around the head. These hair ornaments were calleduzu (髻華) orkazura (鬘).[5]
In theKofun period (Mid 3rd century-7th century), influenced by the Korean Peninsula,[citation needed] emperors and nobles began to wear metal crowns of gold, silver, or gilt bronze decorated with botanical patterns. Metal crowns have been excavated fromkofun (tumuli) throughout Japan, including theEta Funayama andFujinoki kofun tombs.
In 603,Empress Suiko (592-628) instituted theTwelve Level Cap and Rank System, which prescribed the types of caps to be worn by vassals according to their rank. In adescription of Japan in theBook of Sui (636), it is written, "In the Sui Dynasty, that (Japanese) king created the system of crowns for the first time. The crowns were made of brocade or patterned cloth, and were further adorned with gold or silver floral ornaments."[6][a]
According to theNihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan, 720), these hair ornaments, also calleduzu, were attached to caps on New Year's Day and special occasions, and depending on rank,uzu were made of gold, leopard tails, or bird tails.[7][8]
In the Chinese history book,TheOld Book of Tang (945), there is a description of the crown ofAwata no Mahito, an envoy from Japan who had an audience withEmpress Wu Zetian of theZhou dynasty (690–705) in 703. According to the description, he was wearing a crown similar to the Chinesejìndéguān (進徳冠, crown of the crown prince), with a floral ornament at the top.[9][b] Therefore, crowns with floral decorations were used in Japan in the early 8th century.
The history bookShoku Nihongi (797) states, "On January 1, in the 4th year ofTenpyō,Emperor Shōmu in theDaigokuden Hall of the Imperial Palace to receive New Year's greetings from the various vassals. At this time, the Emperor wore thebenpuku (冕服,lit. 'the emperor's crown and robes') for the first time."[2] Therefore, it is believed that Japanese emperors began to officially wear thebenkan in 732.
Emperor Shōmu'sbenkan survives in damaged condition. It consists of gold, silver, gilted metal, jewelry, and glass beads. Its shape is estimated to have been similar to that of Emperor Kōmei's benkan of the Edo period (1603–1867), an ancient metal crown topped with a Chinesemianguan-like board with chains of pearls hanging from it, and a unique sun ornament.
Both theben (冕) andkan (冠) inbenkan (冕冠) are Chinese characters related to crowns. 'Ben' refers to a ceremonial headdress, specifically worn during important rituals, while 'kan' refers to the general concept of a crown. In China, however, benkan means the highest ceremonial crown worn by officials of the rank ofdàifu (大夫) or higher, while in Japan it refers to a crown with chains, worn exclusively by the emperor and the crown prince.
Emperor Shōmu wore thebenkan for the first time in 732 in Japan. However, a document dated 793 in theShōsōin, where Emperor Shōmu'sbenkan was kept, sayson-kanmuri (御冠), notbenkan.[10] The kanji foron (御) is a prefix added to nouns to express politeness and it does not carry meaning on its own.Kanmuri (冠) iskunyomi (Japanese reading) of the same Chinese character askan (冠) inbenkan, meaning crown. Therefore, the meaning ofon-kanmuri is simply a crown.
There were paintings of Emperor Shōmu'sbenkan andEmperor Kanmu'sbenkan for the crown prince when he was the crown prince, drawn in theNara period (710-794), which were handed down to theKamakura period (1185-1333). The names of those paintings usedraikan (礼冠;lit. 'ceremonial crown'). Therefore, it is possible that the termbenkan had not yet been used during the Nara period.[11]
Minamoto no Takaakira's court ritual book,Saikyū-ki (10th century), describes four types of crowns: thebenkan for the emperor, thehōkan for the female emperor, thenikkeikan for the infant emperor, and thekyū shō benkan (九章冕冠;lit. 'benkan with nine symbols') for thecrown prince.[12]
The reason that the crowns for the female and infant emperors are not calledbenkan is thought to be that they did not have chains. At that time in Japan, crowns with chains were understood to bebenkan.
The structure of thebenkan during the Edo period (1603–1867) is as follows:
In Japan, the emperor'sbenkan was once worn along with thekon'e (emperor's dress) during accession andchōga (New Year's greetings) ceremonies.
The Chinese-Japanese dictionaryWamyō Ruijushō, vol. 12 (established in the first half of the 10th century), explains that the Chinesemianguan is calledtama no kōburi (玉乃冠;lit. 'jeweled crown') in Japanese, and is characterized by chains calledryū (旒;lit. 'chain') hanging from the front and back of the crown.[13] Therefore, it can be seen that thebenkan was considered at the time as a crown with chains.
Thebenkan worn by Japanese emperors is sometimes referred to as a "Tang-style crown", but it is actually very different from themianguan worn in China. Thebenkan worn by the emperor in the Edo period consisted of a metal frame placed on top of an openwork gilt-bronze base called theoshikazura (押鬘), with forty-eight jeweled chains hanging from the edge of the frame, twelve on each side.[14][15]
Another significant difference from the Chinesemianguan was the sun-shaped ornament mounted on abenban (square board) at the top of the crown. This ornament is believed to have already been present on thebenkan of Emperor Shōmu, and by theHeian period (794-1185) and later, the benkan also featured a depiction of the three-legged crow (yatagarasu) on it.
It is thought that this was done in recognition of the belief that the emperor was a descendant of the sun goddessAmaterasu, and that he was the "emperor of the land of the rising sun" (Book of Sui).[14]
The openwork metal crown with floral and arabesque patterns surrounding the cap is another feature not found on Chinesemianguan. Thus, the Japanesebenkan is not merely an imitation of the Chinese crown, but rather a combination of both the tradition of metal crowns that has continued in Japan since the Kofun period and the distinctive characteristics of the Chinesemianguan.[14]
In theKojidan (Reflections on Ancient Matters, 1212-1215), it is said that "the crown at the time of theDaijosai is that ofEmperor Ōjin", and that the crown of Emperor Ōjin was used at theDaijosai until theHeian andKamakura periods.[16] However, there is some dispute as to whether Emperor Ōjin's crown was actually abenkan. Dohi Tsunehira (1707-1782), a scholar of court rituals, proposed the theory that it was not a benkan, but rather atamakazura (玉鬘), an ancient necklace.[17]
Among theShōsōin treasures, there is abenkan worn by Emperor Shōmu that has been damaged and is calledOnkamuri Zanketsu (御冠残欠,lit. 'remnants of the crown'). The crown no longer retains its original form. However, metal openwork pieces featuring phoenix, cloud, and arabesque patterns remain, along with pearls, coral, and glass beads threaded through the structure.[18]
In 1242, Emperor Shōmu'sbenkan was brought to Kyoto fromShōsōin along withEmpress Kōken's (reigned 749-758)benkan andEmpress Kōmyō's (701-756) crown for reference in renewingEmperor Go-Saga'sbenkan. However, an accident occurred during the return journey, and these crowns were damaged. Therefore, it has been pointed out that the remnants of Emperor Shōmu'sbenkan may have been mixed with parts of Empress Kōken'sbenkan and Empress Kōmyō's crown.
In theHeian period (794-1185), thebenkan ofEmperor Seiwa (reigned 858-876) was newly created.Minaoto no Morofusa's diary,Doyūki (土右記, 11th century), describes the characteristics of thebenkan.[19]
According to the description, there is an inner crown (cap) made of thin black silk calledkoji (巾子), andkushigata (櫛形) are placed in front and behind it. Thekushigata is interpreted as an ornament consisting of a gold frame with a thin silk covering inside.[20] Theraikan worn by vassals haskushigata at the rear, while the emperor'sbenkan also haskushigata at the front. Surrounding the inner crown is an outer gold crown calledoshikazura (押鬘); above thekoji is a square board consisting of a gold frame with a thin silk covering inside, with 12 jeweled chains each in front and behind it. Stems with jewels adorning their tips are arranged in rows, extending from the four sides of the square board. At the top of the crown is an ornament in the shape of a sun, consisting of two pieces of crystal (likely hemispherical), within which is a three-legged red crow. Around the sun are rays of light.[19]
Thebenkan of Emperor Seiwa and that of the later Emperor Kōmei are generally the same, but thekushigata is absent from Emperor Kōmei'sbenkan. In the case of Emperor Seiwa'sbenkan, the chains are interpreted as hanging from the front and back of thebenban (square board), but in Emperor Komei'sbenkan, they hang from all four sides of the square board. Also, in Emperor Komei'sbenkan, the three-legged crow in the sun is not made of crystal, but is carved on a plate of the sun.
Emperor Seiwa'sbenkan was used in the accession ceremonies of later emperors, but during preparations for the accession ceremony ofEmperor Go-Saga (reigned 1242-1246), it was found to be severely damaged.[21] Therefore, as mentioned above, the crowns of Emperor Shōmu, Empress Kōken, and Empress Kōmyō were ordered from the Shōsōin Repository in Nara, and a newbenkan was made with reference to them.
A painting depicting Emperor Shōmu'sbenkan had been handed down in the imperial palace at that time, and according toEmperor Go-Fukakusa (reigned 1246-1260), who saw the painting, there was no particular difference between Emperor Shōmu'sbenkan and Emperor Go-Saga'sbenkan, which was newly crafted (Diary of Emperor Go-Fukakusa).[11]
The paintingSilken Painting of Emperor Go-Daigo prominently displays thebenkan ofEmperor Go-Daigo, which is said to be the crown ofEmperor Jimmu.[22] However, this is contrary to the statement in theShoku Nihongi that thebenkan begins with Emperor Shōmu.
This portrait depicts Emperor Go-Daigo undergoing theAbhisheka (灌頂,kanjō) ceremony of theShingon Buddhism in 1330, and is said to have been completed on October 23, 1339, after his death. There are two theories as to when the work started: during Emperor Go-Daigo's lifetime or after his death.
The depictedbenkan consists of abenban board on top of a regularkanmuri, with an additional sun-shaped ornament on top of the board. Chains are also depicted hanging from each end of the board. Thekushigata andoshikazura are not depicted, and do not match the characteristics of thebenkan described in theDoyū-ki.
There are theories that this form ofbenkan overkanmuri is a non-photorealistic "pictorial expression,"[23] or that it is an unrealistic and impossible way of wearing the crown, referring to the statue ofPrince Shōtoku and aiming to portray Emperor Go-Daigo as sanctified.[24]
On the other hand, according to theBook of Jin, during theJin dynasty (266–420) in China, there was a removablemianguan calledpíngmiǎn (平冕,lit. 'flatmianguan'), in which themianguan was placed on top of thetongtianguan.[25] In Japan, there is a theory that Empress Kōken'sbenkan in the Shōsōin Repository may have been a removable form.[26]
According to the diary ofNijō Michihira, when the imperial treasury was destroyed by fire in 1333, the emperor's imperial clothes, which were supposed to belong to Emperor Jinmu, were also destroyed by fire, and it is believed that thebenkan was among them.[27] Therefore, aside from the veracity of the tradition, it is believed that Emperor Go-Daigo actually wore Emperor Jinmu'sbenkan.[27]
The medievalbenkan is thought to have been destroyed by fire during theKyoto Imperial Palace fire of 1653, and a newbenkan was made. In the "Enthronement ofEmperor Reigen and Abdication ofEmperor Go-Sai" (17th century), Emperor Reigen (reigned 1663-1687) is depicted wearing abenkan and a redkon'e, while seated in atakamikura (throne). It is unusual for the face of an emperor to be depicted directly on a folding screen of an accession painting.
SinceEmpress Go-Sakuramachi (reigned 1762-1771) was the first female emperor sinceEmpress Meishō (reigned 1629-1643), the shape of thehōkan for female emperors was no longer known because Empress Meishō's hōkan had been destroyed by fire. Therefore, a new crown was made based on the crown ofTokugawa Masako (1607-1678), the empress ofEmperor Go-Mizunoo, with the addition of a sun-shaped ornament.[28]
The twobenkan worn byEmperor Ninkō andEmperor Kōmei during their coronation ceremonies are each preserved in the Higashiyama Gobunko (Imperial Archive) at the Kyoto Imperial Palace.[29]
Thebenkan was used until the coronation of Emperor Kōmei,[30] but since the reign ofEmperor Meiji, thebenkan has been replaced by theGo Ryūei noKanmuri (御立纓の冠) as the government reformed the coronation ceremony to emphasize Shinto traditions over Chinese influences.[31]
The crown of a female emperor (empress) is called ahōkan (宝冠). TheDoyūki diary describes a viewing of ahōkan kept in the royal treasury in 1036.
According to the description, thehōkan had a lowkoji height, anoshikazura (openwork gold crown), and three branches extending from it, each with a floral ornament at its tip. There was nokushigata, however, as in thebenkan of male emperors. There is a small statue of a phoenix on the top of the crown, but it is slightly to the left, suggesting that a phoenix on the right may have been lost.[19]
The low height of thekoji is thought to be due to the fact that women did not wear topknots like men. Also, the crown does not have the chains of thebenkan, which may explain why it was not called abenkan.
Thehōkan is thought to have been worn by Empress Kōken, but some have questioned whether it was intended for an empress (the emperor's wife) rather than for a female emperor.[32]
As mentioned above, Empress Meishō'shōkan was lost in a fire during the Edo period (1603–1867), butEmpress Go-Sakuramachi'shōkan is still extant and kept in the Higashiyama Gobunko (Imperial Library) of the Kyoto Imperial Palace, but is not open to the public.
Empress Go-Sakuramachi'shōkan also does not have abenban and chains hanging from it. However, a total of three chains hang from the phoenix's beak and from either side of the crown. The difference from thehōkan described in theDoyūki is the absence of thekoji itself, and instead there is the addition of a sun-shaped ornament, as in thebenkan.
TheOrder of the Precious Crown, established in1888 (the 21st year of theMeiji) to be awarded to women, is a reference to this, and the center of the insignia is decorated with the image of a precioushokan.[33]
The crown of an infant emperor is callednikkeikan (日形冠;lit. 'crown in the shape of the sun'), which is distinguished frombenkan. In theSaikyū-ki, there is a description that "the infant emperor wears anikkeikan."[12]
In theDoyū-ki, there is a description of the characteristics of thenikkeikan for the infant emperor.[19] According to the description, the lower part of thenikkeikan is the same as that of thebenkan, but the infant does not yet wear a topknot, so it does not have akoji. The top of the crown is decorated with a sun-shaped ornament. The metal crown part of the crown is decorated with gold and precious stones; the crown has no chain, and a phoenix with open wings stands at the front part of the crown.
Thenikkeikan used byEmperor Nakamikado (reigned 1709–1735) andEmperor Kōkaku (reigned 1779–1817) at their respective accession ceremonies are held as imperial treasures in the Higashiyama Gobunko of theKyoto Imperial Palace. The shape of the crown is almost the same as that of the treasure crown, with a phoenix and sun decoration on the top.
In theSaikyū-ki, thebenkan of the Crown Prince is described askyū shō benkan (九章冕冠).[12] The wordkyū shō (九章;lit. 'nine symbols') represents nine chains (九旒). There were nine chains hanging from each side of the square board above the crown.
In the Heian period (794-1185), a picture of a crown worn by the crown prince has been preserved in the Imperial Palace.[34] This picture is said to depict theraikan (benkan) of Prince Yamabe (laterEmperor Kanmu), who became Crown Prince in 773. The crown depicted in the painting is said to be almost the same as the Emperor'sbenkan, but slightly different. The number of chains on each side of the crown is estimated to have been nine, as opposed to the twelve on the emperor'sbenkan.
