Traditional etymology links "Varanasi" to the names of two Ganges tributaries forming the city's borders:Varuna, still flowing in northern Varanasi, and Assi, today a small stream in the southern part of the city, nearAssi Ghat. The old city is located on the north shores of the Ganges, bounded by Varuna and Assi.[32]
In theMahabharata and in ancient India, the city is referred to as Kāśī from the Sanskrit verbal rootkaś- "to shine", making Varanasi known as "City of Light",[33][15] the "luminous city as an eminent seat of learning".[34] The name was also used by pilgrims dating from Buddha's days.[citation needed] Kashi is still widely popular.
According toHindu mythology, Varanasi was founded byShiva,[36] one ofthree principal deities along withBrahma andVishnu. During a conflict between Brahma and Shiva, one of Brahma's five heads was torn off by Shiva. As was the custom, the victor carried the slain adversary's head in his hand and let it hang down from his hand as an act of ignominy, and a sign of his own bravery. A bridle was also put into the mouth. Shiva thus dishonoured Brahma's head, and kept it with him at all times. When he came to the city of Varanasi in this state, the hanging head of Brahma dropped from Shiva's hand and disappeared in the ground. Varanasi is therefore considered an extremely holy site.[37]
Excavations in 2014 led to the discovery of artefacts dating back to 800 BCE. Further excavations at Aktha andRamnagar, two sites in the vicinity of the city, unearthed artefacts dating back to 1800 BCE, supporting the view that the area was inhabited by this time.[42]
Kabir, a 15th-century Indian mystic poet and saint
In 1033 CE, Varanasi faced its first Islamic incursion when Ahmad Nialtagin, a subordinate ofMahmud Ghazni, launched a sudden raid on the city. His forces plundered markets and looted gold, silver, jewels, and perfumes but retreated by mid-day due to the threat of local resistance. Although Hindu temples were partially destroyed, the damage was limited as the army stayed briefly.[47][48]
The following year, in 1034-35 CE, Mahmud's nephewSyed Salar Masud sought to expand Islamic influence in India. Malik Afzal Alavi led a section of his army to Varanasi but was defeated in a fierce battle near the modern-day site of Masjid-e-Ganj-e-Shahidan by local forces, possibly under the Kalachuri ruler Gangeyadeva. Despite the military leader's death, his followers were allowed to settle in the northern forests of Varanasi, creating a settlement named Alavipura (modern-day Alai Pura), inhabited by Muslim weavers and featuring shrines honouring these invaders.[47][49]
Varanasi remained a centre of activity for intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages, which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education. Several major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi, includingKabir who was born here in 1389,[52] andRavidas, a 15th-century socio-religious reformer, mystic, poet, traveller, and spiritual figure, who was born and lived in the city and employed in the tannery industry.[53][54]
Early Modern to Modern periods (1500–1949)
A lithograph by James Prinsep of a Brahmin placing a garland on the holiest location in the city
A painting byLord Weeks (1883) of Varanasi, viewed from the Ganges
An illustration (1890) of a bathing ghat in Varanasi
Silver Rupee of the Bengal Presidency, struck in Muhammadabad Benaras, in the name of Mughal emperorShah Alam II.
Numerous eminent scholars and preachers visited the city from across India and South Asia.Guru Nanak visited Varanasi forMaha Shivaratri in 1507. Kashi (Varanasi) played a large role in the founding ofSikhism.[55]
The Raja ofJaipur established the Annapurna Mandir, and the 200-metre (660 ft) Akbari Bridge was also completed during this period.[58] The earliest tourists began arriving in the city during the 16th century.[59] In 1665, the French travellerJean-Baptiste Tavernier described the architectural beauty of the Vindu Madhava temple on the bank of the Ganges. The road infrastructure was also improved during this period. It was extended fromKolkata toPeshawar by EmperorSher Shah Suri; later during theBritish Raj it came to be known as the famousGrand Trunk Road. In 1656, EmperorAurangzeb ordered the destruction of many temples and the building of mosques, causing the city to experience a temporary setback.[44] However, after Aurangzeb's death, most of India was ruled by a confederacy of pro-Hindu kings. Much of modern Varanasi was built during this time, especially during the 18th century by theMaratha andBhumihar rulers.[60] The kings governing Varanasi continued to wield power and importance through much of the British Raj period, including the Maharaja of Benares, or simply called by the people of Benares asKashi Naresh.[61][62]
TheKingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737, and the kingdom started in this way and continued as a dynasty-governed area until Indian independence in 1947, during the reign ofVibhuti Narayan Singh. In the 18th century,Muhammad Shah ordered the construction of an observatory on the Ganges, attached to Man Mandir Ghat, designed to discover imperfections in the calendar in order to revise existing astronomical tables. Tourism in the city began to flourish in the 18th century.[59] As the Mughal suzerainty weakened, the Benares zamindari estate became Banaras State, thusBalwant Singh of theNarayan dynasty regained control of the territories and declared himself Maharaja of Benares in 1740.[63] The strong clan organisation on which they rested, brought success to the lesser knownHindu princes.[64] There were as many as 100,000 men backing the power of theBenares rajas in what later became the districts ofBenares,Gorakhpur andAzamgarh.[64] This proved a decisive advantage when thedynasty faced a rival and the nominal suzerain, theNawab of Oudh, in the 1750s and the 1760s.[64]
An exhaustingguerrilla war, waged by theBenares ruler against theOudh camp, using his troops, forced theNawab to withdraw his main force.[64] The region was eventually ceded by theNawab of Oudh to theBenares State, a subordinate of theEast India Company, in 1775, who recognised Benares as a family dominion.[65][66] In 1791 under the rule of the British, residentJonathan Duncan founded aSanskrit College in Varanasi.[67] In 1867, the establishment of the Varanasi Municipal Board led to significant improvements in the city's infrastructure and basic amenities of health services, drinking water supply and sanitation.[68]
Rev.M. A. Sherring in his bookThe Sacred City of Hindus: An account of Benaras in ancient and modern times published in 1868 refers to a census conducted byJames Prinsep and put the total number of temples in the city to be around 1000 during 1830s. He writes,[69]
The history of a country is sometimes epitomised in the history of one of its principal cities. The city of Benaras represents India religiously and intellectually, just as Paris represents the political Sentiments of France. There are few cities in the world of greater antiquity, and none that have so uninterruptedly maintained their ancient celebrity and distinction.
Benares is older than history, older than tradition, older even than legend, and looks twice as old as all of them put together.
Benares became a princely state in 1911,[65] withRamnagar as its capital, but with no jurisdiction over the city proper. The religious head, Kashi Naresh, has had his headquarters at theRamnagar Fort since the 18th century, also a repository of the history of the kings of Varanasi, which is situated to the east of Varanasi, across the Ganges.[71] The Kashi Naresh is deeply revered by the local people and the chief cultural patron; some devout inhabitants consider him to be the incarnation of Shiva.[72]
Annie Besant founded theCentral Hindu College, which later became a foundation for the creation ofBanaras Hindu University in 1916. Besant founded the college because she wanted "to bring men of all religions together under the ideal of brotherhood in order to promote Indian cultural values and to remove ill-will among different sections of the Indian population."[73]
Varanasi was ceded to the Union of India in 1947, becoming part ofUttar Pradesh after Indian independence.[74] Vibhuti Narayan Singh incorporated his territories into the United Provinces in 1949.[75]
Maharaja of Benares, 1870s
Map of the city, c. 1914
An 1895 photograph of the Varanasi riverfront
The lanes of Varanasi are bathed in a plethora of colours.
21st-century
Narendra Modi, prime minister of India since 2014, has representedVaranasi in theParliament of India since2014. Modi inaugurated the Shri Kashi Vishwanath Corridor project, which aimed to enhance the city's spiritual vibrancy by connecting many ghats to the temple of Kashi Vishwanath, in December 2021.[76]
Geography and climate
Geography
Varanasi is located at an elevation of 80.71 metres (264.8 ft)[77] in the centre of the Ganges valley ofNorth India, in the Eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh, along the left crescent-shaped bank of the Ganges, averaging between 15 metres (50 ft) and 21 metres (70 ft) above the river.[78] The city is the headquarters ofVaranasi district. By road, Varanasi is located 797 kilometres (495 mi) south-east ofNew Delhi, 320 kilometres (200 mi) south-east ofLucknow, 121 kilometres (75 mi) east ofPrayagraj, 63 kilometres (39 mi) south ofJaunpur[79] and 51 kilometres (32 mi) north-east ofMirzapur.[80] The "Varanasi Urban Agglomeration" – an agglomeration of seven urban sub-units – covers an area of 112 km2 (43 sq mi).[81]
Located in theIndo-Gangetic Plains of North India, the land is very fertile because low-level floods in the Ganges continually replenish the soil.[82] Varanasi is situated between the Ganges confluences with two rivers: the Varuna and the Assi stream. The distance between the two confluences is around 2 miles (4 km), and serves as a sacred journeying route for Hindus, which culminates with a visit to a Sakshi Vinayak Temple.[83]
Climate
Varanasi experiences ahumid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classificationCwa) with large variations between summer and winter temperatures.[84][85] The dry summer starts in April and lasts until June, followed by the monsoon season from July to October. The temperature ranges between 22 and 46 °C (72 and 115 °F) in the summers. Winters in Varanasi see very largediurnal variations, with warm days and downright cold nights. Cold waves from theHimalayan region cause temperatures to dip across the city in the winter from December to February and temperatures below 5 °C (41 °F) are not uncommon. The average annual rainfall is 1,110 mm (44 in). Fog is common in the winters, while hot dry winds, calledloo, blow in the summers.[86] In recent years, the water level of the Ganges has decreased significantly; upstream dams, unregulated water extraction, and dwindling glacial sources due to global warming may be to blame.[87][88]
Climate data for Varanasi (1991–2020, extremes 1901–2012)
According to provisional data from the2011 census, the Varanasi urban agglomeration had a population of 1,435,113, with 761,060 men and 674,053 women.[95] The Varanasi municipal corporation and CB had a combined population of 1,212,610 of which 642,882 were males and 569,728 in 2011. The population in the age group of 0 to 6 years was 137,111.[1]
The population of the Varanasi urban agglomeration in 2001 was 1,371,749 with a ratio of 879 females every 1,000 males.[96] However, the area underVaranasi Nagar Nigam has a population of 1,100,748[97] with a ratio of 883 females for every 1,000 males.[97] The literacy rate in the urban agglomeration is 77% while that in the municipal corporation area is 78%.[97] Approximately 138,000 people in the municipal area live in slums.[98]
Hinduism is predominantly followed in Varanasi withIslam being the largest minority. Nearly 70% of the population follows Hinduism. The city also agglomerate different religions such as Christianity, Sikhism, Jainism and Buddhism. The city is also a centre for Buddhist pilgrimage. AtSarnath, just northeast of Varanasi, the Buddha gave his first teaching (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta) after attainingenlightenment. According to theBuddhavaṃsa, a hagiographical Buddhist text, Varanasi is stated to have been the birthplace of the previous Buddha, known asKassapa Buddha.
In the sacred geography of India Varanasi is known as the "microcosm of India".[100] In addition to its 3,300 Hindu religious places, Varanasi has 12 churches, three Jain mandirs, nine Buddhist shrines, three Gurdwaras (Sikh shrines), and 1,388 Muslim holy places.[101]
Languages
Languages in Varanasi Municipal Corporation and Cantonment Board area, 2011 Census[102]
Hindi (83.9%)
Urdu (9.03%)
Bhojpuri (4.81%)
Bengali (0.92%)
Others (1.37%)
At the time of the2011 Census of India, 83.87% of the population of Varansi Municipal Corporation and Cantonment Board spokeHindi, 9.03%Urdu, 4.81%Bhojpuri, and 0.92%Bengali as their first language.[102]
Varanasi district administration is headed by theDistrict Magistrate of Varanasi, who is anIAS officer.The DM is in charge of property records and revenue collection for the central government and oversees theelections held in the city.The DM is also responsible for maintaining law and order in the city, hence the SSP of Varanasi also reports to theDM of Varanasi.[103][111][112][113][114] The DM is assisted by a Chief Development Officer (CDO), four Additional District Magistrates (ADM) (Finance/Revenue, City, Protocol, Executive), one chief revenue officer (CRO), one City Magistrate (CM), and four Additional City Magistrates (ACM). The district has threetehsils, each headed by aSub-Divisional Magistrate. The DM is Kaushal Raj Sharma.[115][116][110]
Police administration
Varanasi district comes under the Varanasi Police Zone and Varanasi Police Range, Varanasi Zone is headed by anAdditional Director General ranked IPS officer, and the Varanasi Range is headedInspector General ranked IPS officer. The ADG, Varanasi Zone is Biswajit Mahapatra,[117] and IG, Varanasi Range is Vijay Singh Meena.[118]
The district police up to the date of 24 March 2021 was headed by aSenior Superintendent of Police (SSP), who is anIPS officer, and is assisted by sixSuperintendents of Police (SP)/Additional Superintendents of Police (Addl. SP) (City, Rural Area, Crime, Traffic, Protocol and Protocol), who are either IPS officers or PPS officers.[119] Each of the several police circles is headed by a Circle Officer (CO) in the rank of Deputy Superintendent of Police.[119] The last SSP was Amit Pathak.[119]
On 25 March 2021 the Government of Uttar Pradesh passed an order to divide the Varanasi police intoVaranasi City Police and Rural Police.[120] Since then City Police is headed by theCommissioner of Police (CP), who is anIPS officer ofADGP rank, and is assisted by two additional commissioners of police (Addl. CP) who is ofDIG rank, and two deputy commissioners of police (DCP) who are of SP rank. And Rural Police is headed by SP rank.[121]
Infrastructure and civic administration
The development of infrastructure in the city is overseen by the Varanasi Development Authority (VDA), which comes under the Housing Department ofUttar Pradesh government. Thedivisional commissioner of Varanasi acts as theex-officio chairman of the VDA, whereas the vice-chairman, a government-appointedIndian Administrative Service (IAS) officer, looks after the daily matters of the authority.[122] The vice-chairman of the Varanasi Development Authority is Pulkit Khare.[123]
TheVaranasi Municipal Corporation oversees civic activities in the city; the head of the corporation is the mayor, and the executive and administration of the corporation is the responsibility of the municipal commissioner, who is appointed by thegovernment of Uttar Pradesh and is either an IAS officer or Provincial Civil Service (PCS) officer of high seniority. The mayor of Varanasi is Mridula Jaiswal, and the municipal commissioner is Nitin Bansal.[124]
Water supply and sewage system is operated by the Uttar Pradesh Jal Nigam.[125]
Politics
Varanasi is represented in theLok Sabha by the Prime Minister of IndiaNarendra Modi who won theLok Sabha elections in 2014 and subsequently in 2019 by a huge margin.[126][127]
Healthcare
Hospitals in the city include theSir Sunderlal Hospital, a teaching hospital in theBanaras Hindu University, Heritage Hospital, Marwari Hospital, Pitambari Hospital, Mata Anand Mai Hospital, Rajkiya Hospital, Ram Krishna Mission Hospital, Shiv Prasad Gupta Hospital, Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay Hospital (managed by the state government), and Varanasi Hospital and Medical Research Centre. The urban parts of theVaranasi district had aninfant mortality rate of 70 per 1,000 live births in 2010–2011.[128] The Railway Cancer Hospital is now being run by theTata Memorial Centre after intervention by Prime MinisterNarendra Modi who represents Varanasi.[129]
Sushruta, an ancient Indian physician known as the primary author of the treatiseSushruta Samhita, theSanskrit text of surgery, lived in Varanasi and practised medicine and surgery sometime during the 5th century BCE. Since 1922, Ayurveda has been a subject of training in the Banaras Hindu University, and in 1927 a separate Ayurvedic College was established.[130][131] There are many ayurvedic centres in Varanasi providing treatments such asPanchakarma as well as other treatments.[132]
Public maintenance
Because of the high population density of Varanasi and the increasing number of tourists, the Uttar Pradesh government and international non-governmental organisations and institutions have expressed grave concern for the pollution and pressures on infrastructure in the city, mainly the sewage, sanitation, and drainage components.[133]Pollution of the Ganges is a particular source of worry because of the religious significance of the river, the dependence of people on it as a source of drinking water, and its prominence as a symbol of Varanasi and the city itself.[134] The sewage problem is exacerbated by the role of the Ganges in bathing and in river traffic, which is very difficult to control.[133] Because of the sewage, people using local untreated water have higher risk of contracting a range of water-borne stomach diseases.[135]
Parts of Varanasi are contaminated with industrial chemicals includingtoxic heavy metal. Studies ofwastewater from Varanasi's sewage treatment plants identify that water's contamination with metals and the reuse of this water for irrigation as a way that the toxic metals come to be in the plants that people grow for food.[136][137] One studied example ispalak, a popular leafy vegetable which takes up heavy metal when it is in the soil, and which people then eat.[138] Some of the polluting sludge contains minerals which are fertiliser, which could make polluted water attractive to use.[139] Pesticides used in local farming are persistent enough to be spread through the water, to sewer treatment, then back to the farms as wastewater.[139]
Varanasi's water supply and sewage system is maintained by Jal Nigam, a subsidiary of Varanasi Nagar Nigam. Power supply is by theUttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited. The city produces about 350,000,000 litres (77,000,000 imp gal; 92,000,000 US gal) per day[140] of sewage and 425 tonnes (418 long tons; 468 short tons) per day of solid waste.[141] The solid wastes are disposed in one landfill site.[142]
Economy
Tourists shopping for jewellery in Varanasi
According to the 2006 City Development Plan for Varanasi, approximately 29% of Varanasi's population is employed.[143] Approximately 40% are employed in manufacturing, 26% work in trade and commerce, 19% work in other services, 8% work in transport and communication, 4% work in agriculture, 2% work in construction, and 2% are marginal workers (working for less than half of the year).[144]
Among manufacturing workers, 51% work in spinning and weaving, 15% work in metal, 6% work in printing and publishing, 5% work in electrical machinery, and the rest work in a wide variety of industry sectors.[145] Varanasi's manufacturing industry is not well developed and is dominated by small-scale industries and household production.[143]
Silk weaving is the dominant industry in Varanasi.[146]Muslims are the influential community in this industry with nearly half a million of them working as weavers, dyers, sari finishers, and salespersons.[147] Weaving is typically done within the household, and most weavers areMomin Ansari Muslims.[148] Varanasi is known throughout India for its production of very fine silk andBanarasi saris, brocades with gold and silver thread work, which are often used for weddings and special occasions. The production of silk often uses bonded child labour, though perhaps not at a higher rate than elsewhere in India.[149] The silk weaving industry has recently been threatened by the rise of power looms and computer-generated designs and by competition from Chinese silk imports.[143] Trade Facilitation Centre is a modern and integrated facility to support the handloom and handicraft sector in Varanasi; providing trade enhancement and facilitation to both domestic and international buyers. Hence, carrying forward the rich traditions of handlooms and handicrafts.[citation needed]
In the metal manufacturing sector,Banaras Locomotive Works is a major employer.[145]Bharat Heavy Electricals, a large power equipment manufacturer, also operates a heavy equipment maintenance plant.[150] Other major commodities manufactured and traded in Varanasi include hand-knotted Mirzapur carpets, rugs,dhurries, brassware, copperware, wooden and clay toys, handicrafts, gold jewellery, and musical instruments.[146] Important agricultural products includebetel leaves (forpaan),langra mangoes andkhoa (solidified milk).[145][151]
Tourism
Tourism is Varanasi's second most important industry.[152] Domestic tourist most commonly visit for religious purposes while foreign tourist visit for ghats along River Ganges and Sarnath. Most domestic tourists are fromBihar,West Bengal,Madhya Pradesh, and other parts of Uttar Pradesh, while the majority of foreign tourists are fromSri Lanka andJapan.[153] The peak tourist season falls between October and March.[153] In total, there are around 12,000 beds available in the city, of which about one half are in inexpensive budget hotels and one third indharamsalas.[154] Overall, Varanasi's tourist infrastructure is not well developed.[154]
In 2017,InterContinental Hotels Group made an agreement with the JHV group to set up Holiday Inn and Crowne Plaza hotel chains in Varanasi.[155]
The prominent malls and multiplexes in Varanasi are JHV Mall in the Cantonment area, IP Mall in Sigra, IP Vijaya Mall in Bhelupur, Vinayak Plaza in Maldhaiya and PDR Mall in Luxa.
TheJantar Mantar observatory, constructed in 1737, is located above the ghats along the Ganges, and is adjacent to the Manmandir andDasaswamedh Ghats and near the palace ofJai Singh II ofJaipur. While less equipped than the observatories at Jaipur and Delhi, the Jantar Mantar has a uniqueequatorial sundial which is functional and allows measurements to be monitored and recorded by one person.[160]
The Ramnagar Fort, located near the Ganges on its eastern bank and opposite theTulsi Ghat, was built in the 18th century by Kashi NareshBalwant Singh with cream-colouredchunarsandstone. The fort is a typical example of theMughal architecture with carved balconies, open courtyards, and scenic pavilions. At present, the fort is in disrepair. The fort and its museum are the repository of the history of the kings of Benares. Cited as an "eccentric" museum, it contains a rare collection of Americanvintage cars, bejewelledsedan chairs, an impressive weaponry hall, and a rare astrological clock.[161] In addition, manuscripts, especially religious writings, are housed in the Saraswati Bhawan which is a part of a museum within the fort. Many books illustrated in theMughal miniature style are also part of the collections. Because of its scenic location on the banks of the Ganges, it is frequently used as an outdoor shooting location for films.[161][162]
Ghats
TheGhats in Varanasi are world-renowned embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions.[163] The ghats are an integral complement to the Hindu concept of divinity represented in physical,metaphysical, and supernatural elements.[164] Varanasi has at least 84 ghats, most of which are used for bathing by pilgrims and spiritually significant Hindupuja ceremony, while a few are used exclusively as Hindu cremation sites.[165][166][167] Steps in the ghats lead to the banks of Ganges, including theDashashwamedh Ghat, theManikarnika Ghat, the Panchganga Ghat, and the Harishchandra Ghat, where Hindus cremate their dead. Many ghats are associated with Hindu legends and several are now privately owned.[168]
Many of the ghats were constructed under the patronage of the Marathas likeScindias,Holkars,Bhonsles, andPeshwas. Most are bathing ghats, while others are used as cremation sites. A morning boat ride on the Ganges across the ghats is a popular tourist attraction. The extensive stretches of ghats in Varanasi enhance the riverfront with a multitude of shrines, temples, and palaces built "tier on the tier above the water's edge".[43]
TheDashashwamedh Ghat is the main and probably the oldest ghat of Varanasi located on the Ganges, close to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple.[citation needed]
Drone shot of a Dashashwamedh Ghat in 2022
It is believed thatBrahma created this ghat to welcome Shiva and sacrificed ten horses during theDasa-Ashwamedhayajna performed there. Above and adjacent to this ghat, there are also temples dedicated to Sulatankesvara, Brahmesvara, Varahesvara, Abhaya Vinayaka, Ganga (the Ganges), and Bandi Devi, which are all important pilgrimage sites. A group of priests performs "Agni Pooja" (Sanskrit: "Worship of Fire") daily in the evening at this ghat as a dedication to Shiva, Ganga,Surya (Sun),Agni (Fire), and the entire universe. Specialaartis are held on Tuesdays and on religious festivals.[166]
TheManikarnika Ghat is the Mahasmasana, the primary site for Hindu cremation in the city. Adjoining the ghat, there are raised platforms that are used for death anniversary rituals. According to a myth, it is said that an earring of Shiva or his wifeSati fell here. Fourth-centuryGupta period inscriptions mention this ghat. However, the current ghat as a permanent riverside embankment was built in 1302 and has been renovated at least three times throughout its existence.[166]
The Jain Ghat is believed to birthplace ofSuparshvanatha (7th Tirthankara) andParshvanatha (23rd tirthankara). The Jain Ghat or Bachraj Ghat is a Jain Ghat and has three Jain Temples located on the banks of the River. It is believed that the Jain Maharajas used to own these ghats. Bachraj Ghat has three Jain temples near the river's banks, and one them is a very ancient temple of Tirthankara Suparswanath.[citation needed]
Among the estimated 23,000 temples in Varanasi,[38] the temples most popular for worship are: the Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva; theSankat Mochan Hanuman Temple; and the Durga Temple, known for monkeys that reside in the large trees nearby.[74][170][32]
TheKashi Vishwanath Temple, on the Ganges, is one of the 12Jyotirlinga Shiva temples in Varanasi.[170] The temple has been destroyed and rebuilt several times throughout its existence. TheGyanvapi Mosque, which is adjacent to the temple, is the original site of the temple.[171] The temple, which is also known as the Golden Temple,[172] was built in 1780 by QueenAhilyabai Holkar ofIndore. The twopinnacles of the temple are covered in gold and were donated in 1839 byRanjit Singh, the ruler ofPunjab. The dome is scheduled to receive gold plating through a proposed initiative of the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs of Uttar Pradesh. Numerous rituals, prayers, andaartis are held daily at the temple between 02:30 and 23:00.[173]
TheSankat Mochan Hanuman Temple, which is situated by the Asi River, is one of the sacred temples of the Hindu godHanuman.[174] The present temple was built in the early 1900s by the educationist andIndian independence figure, PanditMadan Mohan Malaviya, the founder of Banaras Hindu University.[175] According to Hindu legend the temple was built on the spot where the medieval Hindu saintTulsidas had a vision ofHanuman.[176] During a 7 March 2006 terrorist attack, one of three explosions hit the temple while a wedding was in progress, and resulted in injuries to 30 people apart from 23 deaths.[175] Following the attack, a permanent police post was installed inside the temple.[177]
There are two temples dedicated to the goddess Durga in Varanasi:Durga Mandir built in the 16th century (exact date not known), and Durga Kund (Sanskrit 'kund' meaning "pond or pool") built in the 18th century. A large number of Hindu devotees visit Durga Kund duringNavratri to worship the goddessDurga. The temple, built in theNagara architectural style, has multi-tiered spires[172] and is stained red withochre, representing the red colour of Durga. The building has a rectangular tank of water called theDurga Kund ("Kund" meaning a pond or pool). During annual celebrations ofNag Panchami, the act of depicting the god Vishnu reclining on the serpentShesha is recreated in the Kund.[178] While theAnnapurna Temple, located nearby to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple, is dedicated toAnnapoorna devi, the goddess of food,[170] the Sankatha Temple adjacent to the Sindhia Ghat is dedicated to Sankatha, the goddess of remedy. The Sankatha Temple has a large sculpture of a lion and a cluster of nine smaller temples dedicated to thenine planets.[170]
Parshvanath Jain temple is the temple of Jain religion dedicated to Parshvanath, the 23rd Thirthankara who was born at Bhelpur in Varanasi. The idol deified in the temple is of black colour and 75 centimetres (30 inches) in height. It is located in Bhelapur about 5 kilometres (3.1 miles) from the centre of Varanasi city and 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) from the Benares Hindu University. It belongs to the Digambar sect of Jainism and is a holy tirtha or pilgrimage centre for Jains.
There are 15 mosques of significant historical value in Varanasi. Of particular note are the Abdul Razzaq, Alamgir, Bibi Razia, Chaukhambha, Dhai Nim Kangore, Fatman, Ganje Shahada, Gyanavapi, and Hazrat Sayyed Salar Masud Dargah. Many of these mosques were constructed from the components of the Hindu shrines which were destroyed under the auspices of subsequent Muslim invaders or rulers. The two such well known mosques are theGyanvapi Mosque and theAlamgir Mosque.[179]
The Gyanvapi Mosque was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1664 CE, after destroying a Hindu temple.[180]Gyan Vapi (Sanskrit: "the well of knowledge"), the name of the mosque, is derived from a well of the same name located within the precincts of the mosque.[181] The remains of an erstwhile temple can be seen in the foundation, the columns and at the rear part of the mosque.[182] The façade of the mosque is modelled partially on theTaj Mahal's entrance.[183] The mosque is administered by the Anjuman Inthazamiya Masajid (AIM).[184]
The Alamgiri Mosque was built in the 17th century by Aurangzeb over the ruins of a Hindu temple known as Bindu Madhav Temple.[185] The temple that was destroyed was dedicated toVishnu in the form of Bindu Madhav and had been built by Beni Madhavrao Scindia, a Maratha chieftain fromGwalior. When emperor Aurangzeb had captured Banaras, he had ordered total destruction of all Hindu temples there. Aurangzeb then built a mosque over the ruins of this temple in 1669[186] and named it as Alamagir Mosque in the name of his own honorific title "Alamgir" which he had adopted after becoming the emperor of Mughal empire.[187][182] The mosque is located at a prominent site above thePanchganga Ghat, which is a funerary ghat facing the Ganges.[188] The mosque is architecturally a blend of Islamic and Hindu architecture, particularly because of the lower part of the walls of the mosque having been built fully with the remains of the Hindu temple.[187] The mosque has high domes and minarets.[189][182] Two of its minarets had been damaged; one minaret crashed killing a few people and the other minaret was officially brought down because of stability concerns.[182] Non-Muslims are not allowed to enter the mosque.[190] The mosque has a security cordon of a police force.[191]
Shri Guru Ravidass Janam Asthan, atSir Gobardhan is the ultimate place of pilgrimage or religious headquarters for followers of theRavidassia religion.[192] The foundation stone was laid on 14 June 1965 onAshad Sankranti day at the birthplace of Ravidas. The temple was completed in 1994.[193]
Sarnath
Sarnath, the suburb of Varanasi
Sarnath is located 10 kilometres north-east of Varanasi near the confluence of the Ganges and theVaruna rivers inUttar Pradesh, India.
Several newspapers and journals are or were published in Varanasi such asVaranasi Chandroday and its successorKashivartaprakashika, which became a weekly journal, first published on 1 June 1851.[196] The main newspaper isAj, a Hindi-language nationalist newspaper first published in 1920.[197] The newspaper was the bulwark of theIndian National Congress and is a major newspaper of Hindi northern India.[197]
Varanasi is a major centre of arts and designs. It is a producer of silks and brocades with gold and silver thread work, carpet weaving, wooden toys, bangles made of glass, ivory work, perfumes, artistic brass and copper ware and a variety of handicrafts.[198][199] The cantonment graveyard of the British Raj is now the location of Varanasi's Arts and Crafts.[200]
Sant Goswami Tulsidas Awadhi, a Hindi poet and propagator of Bhakthi music in Varanasi
Varanasi's music tradition is traced to thePauranic days. According to ancient legend, Shiva is credited with evolving music and dance forms. During the medieval era,Vaishnavism, aBhakti movement, grew in popularity, and Varanasi became a thriving centre for musicians such asSurdas,Kabir,Ravidas,Meera and Tulsidas. During the monarchic rule of Govind Chandra in the 16th century, theDhrupad style of singing received royal patronage and led to other related forms of music such as Dhamar, Hori, and Chaturang. Presently the Dhrupad maestro PanditRitwik Sanyal from Varanasi is working for the revival of this art-music.[202]
Hemant Kumar with Rajendra Prasad and Jawaharlal Nehru in 1950
The legend Bollywood singerHemant Kumar or, Hemanta Mukherjee known as "Voice Of God" was born in Benaras.In recent times, Girija Devi, the native famous classical singer ofthumris, was widely appreciated and respected for her musical renderings.[203] Varanasi is also associated with many great instrumentalists such asBismillah Khan[202] and PanditRavi Shankar, the famoussitar player and musicologist who was given the highest civilian award of the country, theBharat Ratna.[204] Varanasi has joined the global bandwagon of UNESCO "Cities of Music" under the Creative Cities Network.[205]
Festivals
OnMaha Shivaratri (February), a procession of Shiva proceeds from the Mahamrityunjaya Temple to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple.[74]Dhrupad Mela is a five-day musical festival devoted todhrupad style held at Tulsi Ghat in February–March.[206] TheSankat Mochan Hanuman Temple celebratesHanuman Jayanti (March–April), the birthday of Hanuman. A specialpuja,aarti, and a public procession is organised.[207][208] Since 1923, the temple has organised a five-day classical music and dance concert festival namedSankat Mochan Sangeet Samaroh, wherein iconic artists from all parts of India are invited to perform.[74]
Durga Puja idol Visarjan in 2014
TheDurga Puja celebrated by bengalis of Varanasi in a large form.A centuries-old Durga idol housed in Purana Durga Bari, installed in 1767 by Kali Prasanna Mukhopadhyay.TheBharat Sevashram Sangha was founded in 1939,which is celebrating Durga Puja from decades.The famousDurga Kund Mandir was constructed byRani Bhabani of Natore is another place for devotion of Durga. Along with several local bengali cultural clubs performs several functions like jatra (folk theatre) singing competitions, dhunuchi nach, dance programs performed by the girls along with free Bhandaras for five days in several puja pandals. Volunteers majorly helps, present in every pandal and the celebration happens grandly.
TheRamlila ofRamnagar is a dramatic enactment of Rama's legend, as told inRamacharitamanasa.[72] The plays, sponsored by Kashi Naresh, are performed in Ramnagar every evening for 31 days.[72] On the last day, the festivities reach a crescendo as Rama vanquishes the demon kingRavana.[72] Kashi NareshUdit Narayan Singh started this tradition around 1830.[72]
Chhath Puja is celebrated on the sixth day of the lunar month ofKartika (October–November).[209][210][211] The rituals are observed over four days.[212] They include holy bathing, fasting and abstaining from drinking water (vrata), standing in water, and offering prasad (prayer offerings) and arghya to the setting and rising sun.[213] Some devotees also perform a prostration march as they head for the river banks. Chhath puja is dedicated to the sun god "Surya" and his sister "Chhathi Maiya".[214] Chhath is considered as Mahaparva by theBhojpuri people.[215]
An actor reenactingKrishna standing on the serpentKaliya, during theNag Nathaiya festival in Varanasi
Nag Nathaiya is celebrated on the fourth lunar day of the dark fortnight of the Hindu month ofKartik (October–November). It commemorates the victory ofKrishna over the serpentKaliya. On this occasion, a largeKadamba tree (Neolamarckia cadamba) branch is planted on the banks of the Ganges so that a boy, playing the role of Krishna, can jump into the river on to the effigy representing Kaliya. He stands over the effigy in a dancing pose playing theflute, while an audience watches from the banks of the river or from boats.[216]Bharat Milap celebrates the meeting of Rama and his younger brotherBharata after the return of the former after 14 years of exile.[74] It is celebrated during October–November, a day after the festival ofVijayadashami. Kashi Naresh attends this festival in his regal attire. The festival attracts a large number of devotees.[217]
Ganga Mahotsav is a five-day music festival organised by the Uttar Pradesh Tourism Department, held in November–December. It culminates a day beforeKartik Purnima, also calledthe Ganges festival. On this occasion the Ganges is attended by thousands of pilgrims, release lighted lamps to float in the river from the ghats.[74][206]
The primary Muslim festivals celebrated annually in the city are theEid al-Fitr,Bakrid,mid-Sha'ban,Bara Wafat andMuharram. Additional festivals includeAlvida andChehlum. A non-religious festival observed by Muslims isGhazi-Miyan-ka-byaha ("the marriage ofGhazi Miyan").[218][219]
Cuisine
In 2019, the sale of meat was banned within 250 meters of all Varanasi temples and heritage sites.[220] In 2025, the sale of all meat was banned in Varanasi duringNavaratri.[221]
Varanasi also has threeKendriya Vidyalaya. Among themKendriya Vidyalaya BHU holds the regional office of Varanasi Region of KVS and is seat of deputy commissioner. Kendriya Vidyalaya BHU is also accredited by theBritish Council. Other KVs are Kendriya Vidyalaya 39 GTC and Kendriya Vidyalaya DLW.[citation needed]
St. Joseph's Convent School, in Shivpur, Varanasi, was established by the Sisters of Our Lady of Providence of France as a Catholic (Christian) minority institution with the approval of theGovernment of Uttar Pradesh. It is an autonomous organisation under the diocese of the Bishop of Varanasi. It provides education not only to the Catholic Christian children, but also to others who abide by its rules.[228]
Schools in Varanasi are affiliated with theIndian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the CBSE, or theUttar Pradesh Board of Technical Education (U.P Board). The overall "state of education in Varanasi is ... not good."[231] Schools in Varanasi vary widely in quality, with private schools outperforming government schools.[231] In government schools, many teachers fail to come to class or to teach children.[231] Some government schools lack basic equipment, such as blackboards and sufficient desks and chairs for all students.[231] Private schools vary in quality, with the most expensive conducting lessons in English (seen as a key to children's success) and having computers in classrooms.[231] Pupils attending the more expensive private schools, tended to come from upper-class families.[231] Lower-cost private schools attracted children from lower-income families or those lower-income families with higher education aspirations.[231] Government schools tend to serve lower-class children with lower education aspirations.[231]
Mobile apps such as "InVaranasi", "Varanasi" and "LiveVNS" provide a wide range of information related to travel and local news.[255][256][257]
Sport
Basketball,cricket, andfield hockey are popular sports in Varanasi.[258] The main stadium in the city is theDr Sampurnanda Stadium (Sigra Stadium), where first-class cricket matches are held.[259] The city also caters an AstroTurf hockey stadium named, Dr. Bheemrao Ambedker National Hockey Stadium.[260]
The Department of Physical Education,Faculty of Arts ofBHU offers diploma courses in Sports Management, Sports Physiotherapy, Sports Psychology and Sports Journalism.[261] Also, BHU caters sports complexes including badminton court, tennis court, swimming pool andamphitheater.[262]
Gymnastics is also popular in Varanasi, and many Indian girls practise outdoors at the ghats in the mornings which hostsakhadas, where "morning exercise, a dip in the Ganges and a visit to LordHanuman" forms a daily ritual.[263] Despite concerns regarding water quality, two swimming clubs offer swimming lessons in the Ganges.[264]
The Varanasi District Chess Sports Association (VDCSA) is based in Varanasi, affiliated to the regional Uttar Pradesh Chess Sports Association (UPCSA).[265]
Transport
Within the city mobility is provided by taxis, rickshaws, cycle rickshaws, and three-wheelers, but with certain restrictions in the old town area of the city.[266]
Varanasi is served byLal Bahadur Shastri International Airport (IATA:VNS,ICAO:VEBN), which is approximately 26 km (16 mi) from the city centre inBabatpur.[267] The airport's new terminal was inaugurated in 2010, and it was granted international airport status on 4 October 2012.[268]
Railways
Varanasi Junction, is the main railway station which serves Varanasi.Banaras railway station at night
Varanasi Junction, commonly known as Varanasi Cantt Railway Station, is the city's largest railway station. More than 360,000 passengers and 240 trains pass through each day.[269]Banaras railway station is also a Terminal station of Varanasi. Because of huge rush at Varanasi Junction, the railway station was developed as a high facilitated terminal.Varanasi City railway station is also one of the railway stations in Varanasi district. It is located 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) north-east of Varanasi Junction railway station. It serves as Terminal station because of heavy rush at Varanasi Junction.Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction railway station is also the important station in Varanasi suburban.[citation needed]
Some important express trains operating from the Varanasi Junction railway station andBanaras railway station are:Shiv Ganga Express runs between New Delhi Junction and Manduadih station whileMahamana Express runs between Varanasi junction and New Delhi Junction; theUdhna Varanasi Express that runs between Udhna (Surat) junction and Varanasi, a distance of 1,398 kilometres (869 mi);[270] theKashi Vishwanath Express that runs between Varanasi andNew Delhi railway station;[271] the Kanpur Varanasi InterCity express, also called Varuna express, which runs over a distance of 355 kilometres (221 mi) and connects withLucknow (the capital city of Uttar Pradesh) andVaranasi;[272] and theSabarmati Express which runs between Varanasi and Ahmedabad.Vande Bharat Express, asemi-high speed train was launched in the month of February in 2019 in the Delhi-Varanasi route.[273] The train reduced the time travel between the two cities by 15 per cent as compared to theShatabdi Express.[274]
Varanasi has following railway stations within the city suburbs:[275][276]
Kashi ropeway is under construction since 2023. It will be 3.75 kilometres (2.33 mi) long and will have a maximum capacity of 3000passengers per hour per direction.[277][115][116][278] It will cover the cantonment area to Godowlia, which will reduce travel time from 45 minutes to around 15 minutes.[279]
Roads
Ring Road Phase I
Auto rickshaws andE-rickshaws are the most widely available forms of public transport in the old city.[280] In the outer regions of the city, taxis are available.[280] Daily commuters prefer city buses, which operate on specific routes of urban and suburban areas. The city buses are operated by Varanasi City Transport Service Limited.[281] Nearly, 120 buses are operated by Varanasi City Transport Service Limited.[282]
The heavy traffic of the city is monitored through Integrated Traffic Management System. The smart traffic management system equips the city with automatic signal control system, separate signal system for pedestrians, traffic management centre at state level, area traffic control system, corridor management and dynamic traffic indicators for smooth movement of traffic.[288] Varanasi Traffic Police keeps an eye through Smart Command and Control Centre.[289][290]
Inland waterways
National Waterway 1 passes through Varanasi. In 2018, a new inland port was established on the banks of Ganges River.[291] TheMulti-Modal Terminal is designed to handle 1.26 million metric tons of cargo every year and covers an area of 34 hectares.[292] Nearly, ₹170 crore was invested by the government to set up an inland port.[293] Maersk started its container service in 2019 by moving 16 containers onNW-1 from Varanasi to Kolkata. The port also catered PepsiCo, IFFCO Fertilizers, Emami Agrotech and Dabur for cargo movement.[294]
Projects
Due to growing population and industrial demands, the city is being implanted with several infrastructural projects.[295] In fiscal year 2014–18, the city was awarded with projects worth ₹30,000 crore.[296] The city is being invested by both private and public players in different sectors.[297] There are many undergoing projects and many have been planned.[citation needed]
Road
Road in Varanasi Cantonment
The government is executing seven road projects connecting Varanasi, the total project cost being₹7,100 crore (US$840 million) and the total length of the project being 524 kilometres (326 mi).[citation needed] Some important projects are:
Six lane Varanasi-Aurangabad section of NH-19[298]
TheVaranasi Metro is arapid transit proposed for Varanasi. The proposed system consists of two lines, spanning fromBHEL toBanaras Hindu University (19.35 kilometres (12.02 mi)) and Benia Bagh toSarnath (9.885 kilometres (6.142 mi)). The feasibility study of the project was done byRITES and was completed in June 2015. There will be 26 stations, including 20 underground and six elevated on the two lines, which includes total length of 29.235 kilometres (18.166 mi) consisting of 23.467 kilometres (14.582 mi) underground, while 5.768 kilometres (3.584 mi) will be elevated.[316][317][318][319] The total estimated completion cost for construction of Varanasi Metro is estimated to be₹13,133 crore (US$1.6 billion).[320]
^San Chirico, Kerry P. C. (2012),"Banaras", in Juergensmeyer, Mark; Roof, Wade Clark (eds.),Encyclopedia of Global Religion, Volume 1, pp. 114–116,ISBN9780761927297,Varanasi is the city's revived, post-independence designation, which combines the names of two rivers on either side of it.
^"Varanasi",Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1 September 2021, retrieved14 December 2021,Varanasi, also called Benares, Banaras, or Kashi, city, southeastern Uttar Pradesh state, northern India.
^San Chirico, Kerry P. C. (2012)."Banaras". In Juergensmeyer, Mark; Roof, Wade Clark (eds.).Encyclopedia of Global Religion. Vol. 1. pp. 114–116.ISBN9780761927297.The city was identified in thePali language as Baranasi, from which emerged the corrupt form of the name, 'Banaras', by which the city is still widely known.
^abSan Chirico, Kerry P. C. (2012)."Banaras". In Juergensmeyer, Mark; Roof, Wade Clark (eds.).Encyclopedia of Global Religion. Vol. 1. pp. 114–116.ISBN9780761927297.... in the fifth century BCE, ... the Kingdom of Kashi was one of the 16 kingdoms to emerge from the ascendant Aryan tribes.
^*Fouberg, Erin H.; Moseley, William G. (2018),Understanding World Geography, New York: John Wiley & Sons, p. 173,ISBN9781119473169,OCLC1066742384,The city of Varanasi, India, is central to the death tradition in Hinduism. Hindus see Varanasi as the world of death and life, and some make pilgrimages to Varanasi to die. In Hindu tradition, if a person dies in the holy city of Varanasi on the Ganges River, he or she is attains moksha, or freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth. Pilgrims travel to Varanasi to cremate their deceased relatives on the ghats along the river.
Eck, Diana (2013) [1981],Banaras, the City of Light, Alfred Knopf Inc, [Columbia University Press], p. 324,–No other city on earth is as famous for death as is Banāras. More than for her temples and magnificent ghāts, more than for her silks and brocades, Banāras, the Great Cremation Ground, is known for death. At the centre of the city along the riverfront is Manikarnikā, the sanctuary of death, with its ceaselessly smoking cremation pyres. The burning ghāt extends its influence and the sense of its presence throughout the city.
Parry, Jonathan P. (2000) [1994],Death in Banaras, Lewis Henry Morgan Lectures, Cambridge University Press, p. 1,ISBN9780521466257,As a place to die, to dispose of the physical remains of the deceased and to perform the rites which ensure that the departed attains a 'good state' after death, the north Indian city of Banaras attracts pilgrims and mourners from all over the Hindu world.
Singh, Ravi Nandan (2022).Dead in Banaras: An Ethnography of Funeral Travelling. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.The present-day Banaras, at first sign, is a new place. Rightly so, the baton must then pass on to an all new chronicling of the place. Yet, a connecting link, as always, may come into play, between the book's time and other times of Banaras. Let me give an example of what such a connection might look like. Jonathan Parry (1994) in his classicDeath in Banaras laments in the preface to the book that he could not incorporate the coming in of the electric crematorium in his descriptions of the funerary organization in Banaras. Two decades later into my fieldwork, I found that it is in part, the efficiency of the open-air, manual cremation that Parry so effectively captures in his book that explains how a promising symbol of industrial modernity, the electric crematorium, falls short of the typecast. In the years between his book and my fieldwork, the electric crematorium sat lonely and was sparingly used against the cheer of the always-on, busy, manual pyres whose flames continue to dot the scene of the ghats in a contrasting relief. In this above sense, I believe, Parry already provides us a portrait of the electric crematorium's social imaginary in Banaras. The question of the shift from wooden pyres to the electric crematorium is then not about competing technologies but that of ethics with which the dead are tended to amidst the assemblies of funeral travellers.
^Garces-Foley, Kathleen (2022), "At the Intersection of Death and Religion", in Garces-Foley, Kathleen (ed.),Death and Religion in a Changing World (2 ed.), London and New York: Routledge, p. 186,doi:10.4324/9781003126997,ISBN978-0-367-64930-2,It is not uncommon for immigrants to discover that their long-established death practices are deemed unacceptable by civil authorities in their new home. We see this for example in the experiences of Sikhs and Hindus living in Sweden and the United States where open cremation pyres are not permitted. Market forces and social context also shape religious practices by limiting access to some goods and services while promoting others and offering new possibilities for action. ... The logistical difficulty of transporting a body from the United States or the UK to the auspicious city of Varanasi, India, for cremation is surmounted by entrepreneurial service providers who manage the process for Hindu customers.
^Arnold, David (2021),Burning the Dead: Hindu Nationhood and the Global Construction of Indian Tradition, Oakland: University of California Press, p. 11,ISBN9780520379343,LCCN2020026923,While Benares is undeniably central to the performance and perception of modern Indian cremation, that history cannot be told from Benares alone. Rather, ... the narrative needs to encompass colonial India's two main metropolises, Bombay (Mumbai) and Calcutta (Kolkata), as well as the movement of Indians overseas and their memorialization abroad. ... The history of cremation in India is far more than the history of traditional rites and practices that it is conventionally taken to be—if tradition is assumed to mean "timeless" custom and immutable belief. On the contrary, cremation in modern India and across the South Asian diaspora is a history of contestation and change, of longing and denial, adaptation and innovation. India, too, has gifted to the world a modern cremation movement, though its meaning, form, and global resonance necessarily differed substantially from the Western cremation movement with which it was nearly contemporaneous.
^*Williams, Philippa (17 January 2019). "Working Narratives of Intercommunity Harmony in Varanasi's Silk Sari Industry". In Jeffrey, Roger; Jeffrey, Craig; Lerche, Jens (eds.).Development Failure and Identity Politics in Uttar Pradesh. SAGE. pp. 211–238.ISBN978-81-321-1663-9.'Varanasi … is the city where Hindus and Muslims … are interwoven like threads as in the lovely silk saris for which Kashi (Varanasi) is so famous for (Puniyani, 2006).'(quoted) Varanasi is most often represented as a sacred Hindu pilgrimage centre (see Eck, 1983), as its social and cultural urban spaces have been often examined through the imagined and lived realities of Hinduism (Hertel and Humes, 1993; Parry, 1994; Singh and Rana, 2002). But it is also home to a sizeable Muslim population, which in 2001 comprised 30 per cent of the city's residents, significantly more than the percentage of Muslims in UP (Census of India, 2001). Unlike the city's majority Hindu inhabitants (63 per cent), who occupy a range of occupations in different economic sectors, Muslims in the city are predominantly involved in the production of silk fabrics, as well as other smaller artisanal industries (see Kumar, 1988). Muslims first settled in Varanasi in the eleventh century, when, following the defeat of an invading Muslim army, women, children and civilians were permitted to remain on the northern side of the city and serve the Hindu kings. Many learned the craft of weaving, incorporating their skills and designs into the fabrics. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, the French explorer and cultural anthropologist, visited Varanasi between 1660 and 1665 and reported that in the courtyard of a rest house in the Chowk area the trading ofreshmi (silk) andsuti (cotton) fabrics was taking place between Muslimkarigars (artisans or craftsmen) and Hindu Mahajans (traders)
Puniyani, Ram (21 April 2006),"Tackling Terrorism – Varanasi, Jama Masjid Show the Way",CounterCurrents.Org,Varanasi, like many other cities of the country is the city where Hindus and Muslim of the city are interwoven like threads as in the lovely silk saris for which Kashi is so famous for. This town has hundreds and hundreds of Muslims artisans weaving the beautiful silk apparels, which are sold by the Hindu traders. This is also a city where on one hand we see the likes of Munshi Premchand, who wrote in Urdu as Nawab Rai and also crafted the acme of Hindi literature, which is not only progressive but is also a celebration of composite traditions of the country. This is also the city of the likes of Ustad Bismillah Khans, whose Shahanai begins with devotion to Hindu deities and hums the pleasant enchanting music into the ears of the whole nation. It is also the city which like most of the cities of the country, highlights the intercommunity amity in its most pleasant flavor.
Mallet, Victor (2017).River of Life, River of Death: The Ganges and India's Future. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.ISBN9780198786177.LCCN2017939064.Modi, however, went out of his way to court Varanasi's Muslims—they account for nearly a quarter of the city's 1.6 million voters—and to emphasize its multicultural, syncretic traditions when he was on the campaign trail in 2014. He praised not only Hindu but also Muslim cultural figures, including the musician Bismillah Khan, and said Khan was arguably the greatest symbol of Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb (Ganga-Yamuna culture), a riverine phrase often used to describe the intertwined Hindu-Muslim culture of north India where those two rivers flow. Modi also targeted the important Muslim community of sari weavers in the district of Lallapura. Varanasi's silk wedding saris, lavishly designed and interwoven with gold thread, are much sought after by Indians from across the country and from overseas, and Modi promised to help the weavers acquire modern technology, quality raw materials and better marketing skills so they could compete with Chinese clothing manufacturers. 'The weavers of Varanasi are an integral part of the city's history', he wrote in a blog post on his nomination day. 'It is my resolve to ensure that they stand on their own feet with pride and their future generations have a bright future.' (pp. 51–52) An earlier great poet, son of Varanasi and symbol of north India's syncretic traditions, was the fifteenth-century Kabir, whose pithy lines in Hindi are still much quoted today by Indians over social media. Again, the legends surrounding his life are confused. He may have been born into a low-caste Muslim community of weavers or been a Hindu by birth. But he famously mocked the priesthoods and the rituals of both Muslims and Hindus, even to the extent of deliberately leaving holy Varanasi to die in an obscure town, when most north Indians would be heading in the other direction and yearning to expire within the boundaries of the city to find salvation. His contempt for organized religion is reflected in the legend of his death: Hindu and Muslim devotees argued over who should claim the poet's remains, but when the cloth covering his body was lifted, they found nothing underneath but a spray of flowers. (pp 60–61)
Kumar, Nita (2017) [1988],The Artisans of Banaras: Popular Culture and Identity, 1880–1986, Princeton Legacy Library, Princeton University Press, pp. 15, 18, 137,ISBN9781400886999,The simplicty of weavers' weddings is a contrast even to those of other Muslims, such as the Pathans. (p. 15) ... Contrary to the experience of most artisan production in modern times, the silk weaving industry has actually flourished, and remained the commercial backbone of the Hindu pilgrimage and religious centre of Banaras. (p. 18) The debate on how Muslims in other parts of South Asia adjust an "Islamic" identity with a territorial-cultural one which is heavily oriented towards local Hinduism is very instructive with regard to our material. The weaver of Banaras is as shaukeen a man as the Hindu and central to his life-style is the love of the outside, of akharas, and of music.(pp. 137–138)
San Chirico, Kerry P. C. (2012),"Banaras", in Juergensmeyer, Mark; Roof, Wade Clark (eds.),Encyclopedia of Global Religion, Volume 1, pp. 114–116,ISBN9780761927297,This was the period in which an enduring cultural imprint was made in ... the establishment ofmuhallas or neighborhoods that exist to this day, in the presence of Sufi shrines dotting the landscape, and in the creation of a singular syncretic culture ... Today Islam accounts for more than one-third of Varanasi city's population. There are as many Muslims here as there are Brahmans, the majority of whom are weavers. The relationship between the Muslims who weave Banaras's famous saris and the Hindus who sell them explains in part by historically there has been less communal tension here than in other cities throughout South Asia.
^San Chirico, Kerry P. C. (2012),"Banaras", in Juergensmeyer, Mark; Roof, Wade Clark (eds.),Encyclopedia of Global Religion, Volume 1, pp. 114–116,ISBN9780761927297
^Fogelin, Lars (2015).An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 87–88.ISBN978-0-1999-4821-5.In some specific cases the symbolism does seem specifically Buddhist. The capital at Sarnath, for example, has four wheels carved on its drum (see Figure 3.4). Critically, this is the only Mauryan capital that includes wheel motifs. It seems unlikely that it is merely coincidental that the capital was located at Sarnath—the location of the Buddha's first sermon, the place where the Buddha first turned the wheel of Dharma. Rather, it seems very likely that the wheel motif, at least at Sarnath, symbolized the wheel of Dharma in the specifically Buddhist sense of the term
^"Varanasi",Encyclopaedia Britannica, 7 June 2022, retrieved1 November 2022,It was the capital of the kingdom of Kashi during the time of the Buddha (6th century BCE), who gave his first sermon nearby at Sarnath.
^Bose, Melia Belli (2017)."Royal Matronage and a Visual Vocabulary of Indian Queenship: Ahilyabai Holkar's Memorial Commissions". In Bose, Melia Belli (ed.).Women, Gender and Art in Asia, c. 1500–1900. London and New York: Routledge.ISBN9781351536554.Each time prior to Aurangzeb's razing, the temple was rebuilt by prominent Rajputs, such as Raja Todar Mal (d. 1586), finance minister and high-ranking courtier to Mughal Emperor Akbar, in 1585. Although he did not sponsor the temple's rebuilding, among the Kashi Vishvanath's most illustrious donors is Raja Man Singh Kachhwaha of Amber, who commissioned several other temples and ghats in the vicinity. ... Raja Man Singh ... was also closely associated with the Mughal emperors Akbar and Jahangir, in whose armies and courts he served
^Metcalf, Barbara (2009)."Introduction". In Metcalf, Barbara D. (ed.).Islam in South Asia in Practice. Princeton and London: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-1400831388.As Catherine Asher has argued, the temples of a Hindu noble like the Rajput Man Singh, built with Mughal patronage, should be seen as 'imperial projects,' reflecting bonds between nobles and the king and making empire-wide architectural styles.
^Bourke, Richard (8 September 2015),Empire and Revolution: The Political Life of Edmund Burke, Princeton University Press, p. 843,ISBN9780691145112,Since 1724 Awadh, "in extent about the size of England," had enjoyed effective autonomy as a quasi-independent province within the Mughal Empire. It came to terms with the British after the Battle of Buxar in 1764, finally signing up to the Treaty of Benares in 1773. This imposed on the Wazir of Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daula, the obligation to accept troops stationed in his territory while paying a subsidy to the British for the privilege. The Wazir's successor, Asaf-ud-Daula, agreed to increase this subsidy under the Treaty of Faizabad in 1775, at the same time ceding Benares to the Company.
^Markovitz, Claude (24 September 2004),"Birth of the British Empire in India (1765–1818)", in Markovits, Claude (ed.),A History of Modern India, 1480–1950, Anthem Press,ISBN9781843311522,In the face of the hostility of all the dynamic forces of the country, the threat of the Marathas looming large on the frontiers, Asaf could count henceforth only on the help of the English, who exerted themselves to use this tumultuous situation to the full. In exchange for their military protection, thenawab granted them as early as 1775 the control of the region of Benares, in addition to a substantial increase in indemnity.
^Bayly, Christopher (1983),Rulers, townsmen, and bazaars: north Indian society in the age of British expansion, 1770–1870, Cambridge University Press, pp. xii–xiii,ISBN9780521229326,In 1801 a large area of Awadh situated in the Doab and Rohilkhand were ceded to the British. It was added to districts conquered from the Marathas in 1803–4 around Delhi and Agra to form the 'Conquered and Ceded Provinces' of the British Bengal Presidency. The term 'Western Provinces' and later 'North-Western Provinces' came into gradual use to describe this area and the adjoining Benares Division; ... In 1856 the remaining 'Reserved Dominions' of the ruler of Awadh were annexed to become the British Province of Oudh under a Chief Commissioner. In 1901 the two provinces were amalgamated to become the United Province of Agra and Oudh.
^Eck 1982, p. 10, 58, refers to "Banares – which Hindus call Kashi, the City of Light" (p. 10) and "Hindus call it Kashi, the luminous City of Light" (p. 58)..
^Sen, Sailendra (2013).A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp. 32–3.ISBN978-9-38060-734-4.
^Satish Chandra (2007).Medieval India:800-1700. Orient Longman. p. 71.ISBN978-81-250-3226-7.Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved7 August 2022.In 1194, Muizzuddin returned to India. He crossed the Jamuna with 50,000 cavalry and moved towards Kanauj. A hotly contested battle between Muizzuddin and Jaichandra was fought at Chandawar near Kanauj. We are told that Jaichandra had almost carried the day when he was killed by an arrow, and his army was totally defeated. Muizzuddin now moved on to Banaras which was ravaged, a large number of temples there being destroyed
^Rima Hooja (2006).A history of Rajasthan. Rupa & Company. pp. 493–495.ISBN978-8129108906.Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved7 August 2022.Among the architectural legacies left by Man Singh are the palaces within Amber fort, Man Mandir, Man Chat and Sarovar Ghat at Varanasi, the Govind Dev temple at Vrindaban, and temples at Pushkar, Manpur, Puri, etc. He also built forts at Salimpur (Bengal), Manihari (Bihar), Ramgarh (Dhoondhar), founded the towns of Akbarnagar (Rajmahal), Manpur (near Gaya), and the small township of Baikunthpur (now called Baikathpur, in Bihar's Patna district), and carried out massive repairs and fresh construction, including of palaces, at the fort of Rohtas
^Aitchison, Charles Umpherston (1857). "Translation of the Proposed Articles of the Treaty with the Nabob Ausuf-ul-Dowla,— 21st May 1775: Article 5".A Collection Of Treaties, Engagements And Sanads. Vol. 2. Delhi: Mittal Publications. p. 107. Retrieved 23 April 2022.the English Company shall, after one month and a half from the date of this Treaty, take upon them the sovereignty and possession of the districts under Rajah Cheyt Sing, as hereunder specified, viz- Sircar Benares
^Matthew Atmore Sherring. "3".The Sacred City of the Hindus An Account of Benares in Ancient and Modern Times (First ed.). London: Trübner & Company. p. 41.
^"DEO Varanasi".Tourist Information: General Information. Varanasi District Administration by National Informatics Centre.Archived from the original on 28 June 2011.
^Hamner, Steve; Tripathi, Anshuman; Mishra, Rajesh Kumar; Bouskill, Nik; Broadaway, Susan C.; Pyle, Barry H.; Ford, Timothy E. (2006). "The role of water use patterns and sewage pollution in incidence of water-borne/enteric diseases along the Ganges river in Varanasi, India".International Journal of Environmental Health Research.16 (2):113–32.Bibcode:2006IJEHR..16..113H.doi:10.1080/09603120500538226.ISSN0960-3123.PMID16546805.S2CID23264273.
^abSingh, Kunwar P; Mohan, Dinesh; Sinha, Sarita; Dalwani, R (2004). "Impact assessment of treated/untreated wastewater toxicants discharged by sewage treatment plants on health, agricultural, and environmental quality in the wastewater disposal area".Chemosphere.55 (2):227–55.Bibcode:2004Chmsp..55..227S.doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2003.10.050.ISSN0045-6535.PMID14761695.
^Bhargava, Gopal (25 October 2000)."Scheme for Varanasi".The Tribune. India.Archived from the original on 12 September 2006.
^"Waste Generation and Composition".Management of municipal solid wastes. Planning Division, Central Pollution Control Board. Archived fromthe original on 17 July 2006. Retrieved18 August 2006.
^"DEO Varanasi".Tourist Information:Places of Interest. Varanasi District Administration by National Informatics Centre.Archived from the original on 28 June 2011.
^"DEO Varanasi".Tourist Information How to Reach page. Varanasi District Administration by National Informatics Centre.Archived from the original on 28 June 2011.
Bruyn, Pippa de; Bain, Keith; Allardice, David (18 February 2010).Frommer's India. John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-0-470-64580-2.Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved6 March 2016.
Wood, Jolie M.F. (2011). "Contentious politics and civil society in Varanasi". In Ajay Gudavarthy (ed.).Re-framing Democracy and Agency at India: Interrogating Political Society. Anthem Press.ISBN978-0-85728-350-4.
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