Belgium as it exists today was established following the 1830Belgian Revolution. In the 19th century, it was one of the earliest participants of theIndustrial Revolution,[18][19] and the first country incontinental Europe to become industrialised.[20] By the early 20th century, it possessedseveral colonies, notably theBelgian Congo andRuanda-Urundi,[21][g] which gained independence between 1960 and 1962.[23] The second half of the 20th century was marked by rising tensions between the Dutch-speakers and French-speakers, fueled by differences in political culture and the unequal economic development of Flanders and Wallonia. This has resulted in severalfar-reaching state reforms, including the transition from aunitary tofederal structure between 1970 and 1993. Tensions persist amid ongoing reforms; the country faces a strong separatist sentimentamong the Flemish, controversiallanguage laws,[24] and a fragmented political landscape that resulted in a record 589 days withouta government formation following the2010 federal election.[25]
According toJulius Caesar, theBelgae were the inhabitants of the northernmost part ofGaul. They lived in a region stretching fromParis to theRhine, which is much bigger than modern Belgium. However, he also specifically used the Latin word "Belgium" to refer to a politically dominant part of that region, which is now in northernmost France.[26] In contrast, modern Belgium, together with neighbouring parts of the Netherlands and Germany, corresponds to the lands of the most northerly Belgae – theMorini,Menapii,Nervii,Germani Cisrhenani, andAduatuci. Caesar found these peoples particularly warlike and economically undeveloped, and described them as kinsmen of theGermanic tribes east of the Rhine. Apart from them, the area aroundArlon in southern Belgium was a part of the country of the powerfulTreveri, whose lands stretched into present-day Luxembourg and nearby parts of France and Germany.
After Caesar's conquests,Gallia Belgica first became the Latin name of a largeRoman province covering most of Northern Gaul, including the Belgae and Treveri. However, areas closer to the lower Rhine frontier, including the eastern part of modern Belgium, subsequently became part of the frontier province ofGermania Inferior, which continued to interact with their neighbours outside the empire. At the time when central government collapsed in theWestern Roman Empire, the Roman provinces of Belgica and Germania were inhabited by a mix of Romanized populations andGermanic-speakingFranks who came to dominate the military and political class.
Middle Ages
During the 5th century, the area came under the rule of the FrankishMerovingian kings, who initially established a kingdom ruling over the Romanized population in what is now northern France, and then conquered the other Frankish kingdoms. During the 8th century, the empire of the Franks came to be ruled by theCarolingian dynasty, whose centre of power included the area which is now eastern Belgium.[27] Over the centuries, it was divided up in many ways, but theTreaty of Verdun in 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms whose borders had a lasting impact on medieval political boundaries. Most of modern Belgium was in theMiddle Kingdom, later known asLotharingia, but the coastalcounty of Flanders, west of theScheldt, became the northernmost part ofWest Francia, the predecessor ofFrance. In 870 in theTreaty of Meerssen, modern Belgium lands all became part of the western kingdom for a period, but in 880 in theTreaty of Ribemont, Lotharingia came under the lasting control of the eastern kingdom, which became theHoly Roman Empire. The lordships and bishoprics along the "March" (frontier) between the two great kingdoms maintained important connections between each other. For example, the county of Flanders expanded over the Scheldt into the empire, and during several periods was ruled by the same lords as thecounty of Hainaut.
In the 13th and 14th centuries, the cloth industry and commerce boomed especially in the County of Flanders and it became one of the richest areas in Europe. This prosperity played a role in conflicts between Flanders and theking of France. Famously, Flemish militias scored a surprise victory at theBattle of the Golden Spurs against a strong force of mounted knights in 1302, but France soon regained control of the rebellious province.
In the 15th century, theDuke of Burgundy in France took control of Flanders, and from thereproceeded to unite much of what is now the Benelux, the so-calledBurgundian Netherlands.[28] "Burgundy" and "Flanders" were the first two common names used for the Burgundian Netherlands which was the predecessor of the Austrian Netherlands, the predecessor of modern Belgium.[29] The union, technically stretching between two kingdoms, gave the area economic and political stability which led to an even greater prosperity and artistic creation.
The main political parties of the 19th century were theCatholic Party and theLiberal Party, with theBelgian Labour Party emerging towards the end of the 19th century. French was originally the official language used by thenobility and thebourgeoisie, especially after the rejection of the Dutch monarchy. French progressively lost its dominance as Dutch began to recover its status. This recognition became official in 1898, and in 1967, the parliament accepted a Dutch version of theConstitution.[34]
TheBerlin Conference of 1885 ceded control of theCongo Free State toKing Leopold II as his private possession. From around 1900 there was growing international concern for theextreme and savage treatment of the Congolese population under Leopold II, for whom the Congo was primarily a source of revenue from ivory and rubber production.[35] Many Congolese were killed by Leopold's agents for failing to meet production quotas for ivory and rubber.[36] In 1908, this outcry led the Belgian state to assume responsibility for the government of the colony, henceforth called theBelgian Congo.[37] A Belgian commission in 1919 estimated that Congo's population was half what it was in 1879.[36]
Cheering crowds greet British troops enteringBrussels, 4 September 1944.
Belgium shares borders withFrance (620 km),Germany (162/167 km),Luxembourg (148 km), and theNetherlands (450 km). Its total surface, including water area, is 30,689 km2 (11,849 sq mi).[4] Before 2018, its total area was believed to be 30,528 km2 (11,787 sq mi). However, when the country's statistics were measured in 2018, a new calculation method was used. Unlike previous calculations, this one included the area from the coast to the low-water line, revealing the country to be 160 km2 (62 sq mi) larger in surface area than previously thought.[41][42] Its land area alone is 30,494 square kilometers.[5] It lies between latitudes 49°30' and 51°30' N, and longitudes 2°33' and 6°24' E.[43]
Belgium has three main geographical regions; the coastal plain in the northwest and the central plateau both belong to the Anglo-Belgian Basin, and theArdennes uplands in the southeast to theHercynian orogenic belt. TheParis Basin reaches a small fourth area at Belgium's southernmost tip,Belgian Lorraine.[44]
The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes andpolders. Further inland lies a smooth, slowly rising landscape irrigated by numerous waterways, with fertile valleys and the northeastern sandy plain of theCampine (Kempen). The thickly forested hills and plateaus of the Ardennes are more rugged and rocky with caves and smallgorges. Extending westward into France, this area is eastwardly connected to theEifel in Germany by theHigh Fens plateau, on which theSignal de Botrange forms the country's highest point at 694 m (2,277 ft).[45][46]
The climate ismaritime temperate with significant precipitation in all seasons (Köppen climate classification:Cfb), like most of northwest Europe.[47] The average temperature is lowest in January at 3 °C (37.4 °F) and highest in July at 18 °C (64.4 °F). The average precipitation per month varies between 54 mm (2.1 in) for February and April, to 78 mm (3.1 in) for July.[48] Averages for the years 2000 to 2006 show daily temperature minimums of 7 °C (44.6 °F) and maximums of 14 °C (57.2 °F) and monthly rainfall of 74 mm (2.9 in); these are about 1 °C and nearly 10 millimeters above last century's normal values, respectively.[49]
Climate change in Belgium has caused temperatures rises and more frequent and intenseheatwaves, increases in winter rainfall and decreases in snowfall.[50] By 2100, sea levels along the Belgian coast are projected to rise by 60 to 90 cm with a maximum potential increase of up to 200 cm in the worst-case scenario.[51] The costs of climate change are estimated to amount to €9.5 billion a year in 2050 (2% of Belgian GDP), mainly due to extreme heat, drought and flooding, while economics gains due to milder winters amount to approximately €3 billion a year (0.65% of GDP).[51] In 2023, Belgium emitted 106.82 million tonnes ofgreenhouse gases (around 0.2% of the global total emissions), equivalent to 9.12 tonnes per person.[52][53] The country has committed tonet zero by 2050.[54]
TheKing (currentlyPhilippe) is thehead of state, though with limitedprerogatives. He appoints ministers, including a Prime Minister, that have the confidence of theChamber of Representatives to form thefederal government. The Council of Ministers is composed of no more than fifteen members. With the possible exception of the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers is composed of an equal number of Dutch-speaking members and French-speaking members.[63]The judicial system is based oncivil law and originates from theNapoleonic code. TheCourt of Cassation is the court of last resort, with thecourts of appeal one level below.[64]
Political culture
Belgium's political institutions are complex;most political power rests on representation of the main cultural communities.[65]Since about 1970, the significant nationalBelgian political parties have split into distinct components that mainly represent the political and linguistic interests of these communities.[66]The major parties in each community, though close to the political center, belong to three main groups:Christian Democrats,Liberals, andSocial Democrats.[67]Further notable parties came into being well after the middle of last century, mainly to representlinguistic, nationalist, or environmental interests, and recently smaller ones of some specific liberal nature.[66]
A string of Christian Democrat coalition governments from 1958was broken in 1999 after the firstdioxin crisis, a majorfood contamination scandal.[68][69][70] A "rainbow coalition" emerged from six parties: the Flemish and the French-speaking Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens.[71] Later, a "purple coalition" of Liberals and Social Democrats formed after the Greens lost most of their seats in the2003 election.[72]
On that day, anew government, led by Flemish Christian DemocratYves Leterme, the actual winner of the federal elections ofJune 2007, was sworn in by the king. On15 July 2008 Leterme offered the resignation of the cabinet to the king, as no progress inconstitutional reforms had been made.[81]In December 2008, Leterme once more offered his resignation after acrisis surrounding the sale ofFortis toBNP Paribas.[82] At this juncture, his resignation was accepted andChristian Democratic and FlemishHerman Van Rompuy was sworn in as Prime Minister on30 December 2008.[83]
After Herman Van Rompuy was designated the first permanentPresident of the European Council on19 November 2009, he offered the resignation of his government to King Albert II on25 November 2009. A few hours later, thenew government under Prime MinisterYves Leterme was sworn in. On22 April 2010, Leterme again offered the resignation of his cabinet to the king[84] after one of the coalition partners, theOpenVLD, withdrew from the government, and on26 April 2010 King Albert officially accepted the resignation.[85]
The Parliamentary elections in Belgium on13 June 2010 saw the Flemish nationalistN-VA become the largest party in Flanders, and the Socialist Party PS the largest party in Wallonia.[86] Until December 2011, Belgium was governed by Leterme'scaretaker government awaiting the end of the deadlocked negotiations forformation of a new government. By 30 March 2011, this set a new world record for the elapsed time without an official government, previously held by war-tornIraq.[87] Finally, in December 2011 theDi Rupo Government led by Walloon socialist Prime MinisterElio Di Rupo was sworn in.[88]
The2014 federal election (coinciding with theregional elections) resulted in a further electoral gain for the Flemish nationalist N-VA. However, the incumbent coalition (composed of Flemish and French-speaking Social Democrats, Liberals, and Christian Democrats) maintains a solid majority in Parliament and all electoral constituencies. On 22 July 2014, King Philippe nominatedCharles Michel (MR) andKris Peeters (CD&V) tolead the formation of a new federal cabinet composed of the Flemish parties N-VA, CD&V, Open Vld and the French-speaking MR, which resulted in theMichel Government. It was the first time N-VA was part of the federal cabinet, while the French-speaking side was represented only by the MR, which achieved a minority of the public votes in Wallonia.[89]
In May2019 federal elections in the Flemish-speaking northern region of Flanders, the far-rightVlaams Belang party made major gains. In the French-speaking southern area of Wallonia, the Socialists were strong. The moderate Flemish nationalist party, the N-VA, remained the largest party in parliament.[90]In July 2019, Prime MinisterCharles Michel was selected to hold the post of President of theEuropean Council.[91] His successorSophie Wilmès was Belgium's first female prime minister. She led the caretaker government since October 2019.[92] The Flemish Liberal party politicianAlexander De Croo became new prime minister in October 2020. The parties had agreed on the federal government 16 months after the elections.[93]
Following a usage which can be traced back to the Burgundian and Habsburg courts,[94] in the 19th century it was necessary to speak French to belong to the governing upper class, and those who could only speak Dutch were effectively second-class citizens.[95] Late that century, and continuing into the 20th century,Flemish movements evolved to counter this situation.[96]
While the people in Southern Belgium spoke French or dialects of French, andmost Brusselers adopted French as their first language, the Flemings refused to do so and succeeded progressively in making Dutch an equal language in the education system.[96] Following World War II, Belgian politics became increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main linguistic communities.[97] Intercommunal tensions rose and the constitution was amended to minimize the potential for conflict.[97]
Based on the four language areas defined in 1962–63 (the Dutch, bilingual, French and German language areas), consecutiverevisions ofthe country's constitution in 1970, 1980, 1988 and 1993 established a unique form of a federal state with segregated political power into three levels:[98][99]
Theconstitutional language areas determine the official languages in their municipalities, as well as the geographical limits of the empowered institutions for specific matters.[102] Although this would allow for seven parliaments and governments when the Communities and Regions were created in 1980, Flemish politicians decided to merge both.[103] Thus the Flemings just have one single institutional body of parliament and government is empowered for all except federal and specific municipal matters.[i]
The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region (which came into existence nearly a decade after the other regions) is included in both the Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Conflicts about jurisdiction between the bodies are resolved by theConstitutional Court of Belgium. The structure is intended as a compromise to allow different cultures to live together peacefully.[18]
Locus of policy jurisdiction
The Federal State's authority includes justice, defense, federal police, social security, nuclear energy, monetary policy and public debt, and other aspects of public finances. State-owned companies include theBelgian Post Group andBelgian Railways. The Federal Government is responsible for the obligations of Belgium and its federalized institutions towards the European Union and NATO. It controls substantial parts of public health, home affairs and foreign affairs.[104] The budget—without the debt—controlled by the federal government amounts to about 50% of the national fiscal income. The federal government employs around 12% of the civil servants.[105]
Communities exercise their authority only within linguistically determined geographical boundaries, originally oriented towards the individuals of a Community's language: culture (including audiovisual media), education and the use of the relevant language. Extensions to personal matters less directly connected with language comprise health policy (curative and preventive medicine) and assistance to individuals (protection of youth, social welfare, aid to families,immigrant assistance services, and so on.).[106]
Regions have authority in fields that can be broadly associated with their territory. These include economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport, the environment, town and country planning, nature conservation, credit and foreign trade. They supervise the provinces, municipalities and intercommunal utility companies.[107]
In several fields, the different levels each have their own say on specifics. With education, for instance, the autonomy of the Communities neither includes decisions about the compulsory aspect nor allows for setting minimum requirements for awarding qualifications, which remain federal matters.[104] Each level of government can be involved in scientific research and international relations associated with its powers. The treaty-making power of the Regions' and Communities' Governments is the broadest of all the Federating units of all the Federations all over the world.[108][109][110]
Because of its location at the crossroads ofWestern Europe, Belgium has historically been the route of invading armies from its larger neighbors. With virtually defenseless borders, Belgium has traditionally sought to avoid domination by the more powerful nations which surround it through a policy of mediation. The Belgians have been strong advocates ofEuropean integration. The headquarters ofNATO and of several of the institutions of theEuropean Union are located in Belgium.
The Belgian Armed Forces had 23,200 active personnel in 2023, including 8,500 in theLand Component, 1,400 in theNaval Component, 4,900 in theAir Component, 1,450 in theMedical Component, and 6,950 in joint service, in addition to 5,900 reserve personnel.[111] In 2019, Belgium's defense budget totaled €4.303 billion ($4.921 billion) representing .93% of its GDP.[112] The operational commands of the four components are subordinate to the Staff Department for Operations and Training of theMinistry of Defense, which is headed by theAssistant Chief of Staff Operations and Training, and to theChief of Defense.[113] The Belgian military consists of volunteers (conscription was abolished in 1995), and citizens of other EU states, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, or Lichtenstein are also able to join. Belgium has troops deployed in several African countries as part of UN or EU missions, in Iraq for thewar against the Islamic State, and in eastern Europe for the NATO presence there.[111][114]
The effects of theSecond World War madecollective security a priority forBelgian foreign policy. In March 1948 Belgium signed theTreaty of Brussels and then joinedNATO in 1948. However, the integration of the armed forces into NATO did not begin until after theKorean War.[115] The Belgians, along with the Luxembourg government, sent a detachment of battalion strength to fight in Korea known as theBelgian United Nations Command. This mission was the first in a long line of UN missions which the Belgians supported. Currently, the Belgian Marine Component is working closely together with theDutch Navy under the command of theAdmiral Benelux.
According to the 2024Global Peace Index, Belgium is the 16th most peaceful country in the world.[116]
Belgium's strongly globalized economy[117] and itstransport infrastructure are integrated with the rest of Europe. Its location at the heart of a highly industrialized region helped make it the world's 15th largest trading nation in 2007.[118][119] The economy is characterized by a highly productive work force, highGNP and high exports per capita.[120] Belgium's main imports are raw materials, machinery and equipment, chemicals, raw diamonds, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, transportation equipment, and oil products. Its main exports are machinery and equipment, chemicals, finished diamonds, metals and metal products, and foodstuffs.[121]
The Belgian economy is heavily service-oriented and shows a dual nature: a dynamic Flemish economy and a Walloon economy that lags behind.[18][122][j] One of the founding members of the European Union, Belgium strongly supports anopen economy and the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate member economies. Since 1922, through theBelgium-Luxembourg Economic Union, Belgium and Luxembourg have been a single trade market with customs and currency union.[123]
Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo theIndustrial Revolution, in the early 19th century.[124] Areas inLiège Province and aroundCharleroi rapidly developed mining and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century in theSambre and Meuse valley and made Belgium one of the three most industrialized nations in the world from 1830 to 1910.[125][126] However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis, and the region experiencedfamine from 1846 to 1850.[127][128]
After World War II,Ghent andAntwerp experienced a rapid expansion of the chemical and petroleum industries. The 1973 and1979 oil crises sent the economy into a recession; it was particularly prolonged in Wallonia, where the steel industry had become less competitive and experienced a serious decline.[129] In the 1980s and 1990s, the economic center of the country continued to shift northwards and is now concentrated in the populousFlemish Diamond area.[130]
By the end of the 1980s, Belgianmacroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120% of GDP. As of 2006[update], the budget was balanced and public debt was equal to 90.30% of GDP.[131] In 2005 and 2006, real GDP growth rates of 1.5% and 3.0%, respectively, were slightly above the average for the Euro area. Unemployment rates of 8.4% in 2005 and 8.2% in 2006 were close to the area average. ByOctober 2010, this had grown to 8.5% compared to an average rate of 9.6% for the European Union as a whole (EU 27).[132][133] From 1832 until 2002, Belgium's currency was theBelgian franc. Belgium switched to the euro in 2002, with the first sets of euro coins being minted in 1999. The standardBelgian euro coins designated for circulation show the portrait of the monarch (first King Albert II, since 2013 King Philippe).
Despite an 18% decrease observed from 1970 to 1999, Belgium still had in 1999 the highestrail network density within the European Union with 113.8 km/1 000 km2. On the other hand, the same period, 1970–1999, has seen a huge growth (+56%) of themotorway network. In 1999, the density of km motorways per 1000 km2 and 1000 inhabitants amounted to 55.1 and 16.5 respectively and were significantly superior to the EU's means of 13.7 and 15.9.[134]
From a biological resource perspective, Belgium has a low endowment: Belgium'sbiocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016,[135] just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity available per person worldwide.[136] In contrast, in 2016, Belgians used on average 6.3 global hectares of biocapacity - theirecological footprint of consumption. This means they required about eight times as much biocapacity as Belgium contains. As a result, Belgium was running a biocapacity deficit of 5.5 global hectares per person in 2016.[135]
Belgium experiences some of the most congested traffic in Europe. In 2010, commuters to the cities of Brussels and Antwerp spent respectively 65 and 64 hours a year in traffic jams.[137] Like in most small European countries, more than 80% of the airways traffic is handled by a single airport, theBrussels Airport. Theports of Antwerp andZeebrugge (Bruges) share more than 80% of Belgian maritime traffic, Antwerp being the second European harbor with a gross weight of goods handled of 115 988 000 t in 2000 after a growth of 10.9% over the preceding five years.[134][138] In 2016, the port of Antwerp handled 214 million tons after a year-on-year growth of 2.7%.[139]
There is a large economic gap betweenFlanders andWallonia. Wallonia was historically wealthy compared to Flanders, mostly due to itsheavy industries, but the decline of the steel industry post-World War II led to the region's rapid decline, whereas Flanders rose swiftly. Since then, Flanders has been prosperous, among the wealthiest regions in Europe, whereas Wallonia has been languishing. As of 2007, the unemployment rate of Wallonia is over double that of Flanders. The divide has played a key part in the tensions between the Flemish and Walloons in addition to the already-existing language divide.Pro-independence movements have gained high popularity in Flanders as a consequence. The separatistNew Flemish Alliance (N-VA) party, for instance, is the largest party in Belgium.[140][141][142]
Population density in Belgium byarrondissementBrussels, the capital city and largest metropolitan area of Belgium
As of 1 January 2024, the total population of Belgium according to its population register was 11,763,650.[7] The population density of Belgium is 383/km2 (990/sq mi) as of January 2024, making it the22nd most densely populated country in the world, and the6th most densely populated country inEurope. The most densely populated province isAntwerp, the least densely populated province isLuxembourg. As of January 2024, theFlemish Region (Flanders) had a population of 6,821,770 (58.0% of Belgium), its most populous cities beingAntwerp (545,000),Ghent (270,000), andBruges (120,000). TheWalloon Region (Wallonia) had a population of 3,692,283 (31.4% of Belgium), its most populous cities beingCharleroi (204,000),Liège (196,000), andNamur (114,000). TheBrussels-Capital Region (Brussels) had a population of 1,249,597 (10.6% of Belgium), existing of19 municipalities, its most populous cities being thecity of Brussels (197,000),Schaerbeek (130,000), andAnderlecht (127,000).[7]
In 2017 the averagetotal fertility rate (TFR) across Belgium was 1.64 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.1; it remains considerably below the high of 4.87 children born per woman in 1873.[156] Belgium subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with an average age of 41.6 years.[157]
Migration
As of 2007[update], nearly 92% of the population had Belgian citizenship,[158] and other European Union member citizens account for around 6%. The prevalent foreign nationals were Italian (171,918), French (125,061), Dutch (116,970),Moroccan (80,579),Portuguese (43,509), Spanish (42,765),Turkish (39,419) and German (37,621).[159][160] In 2007, there were 1.38 million foreign-born residents in Belgium, corresponding to 12.9% of the total population. Of these, 685,000 (6.4%) were born outside the EU, and 695,000 (6.5%) were born in another EU Member State.[161][162]
At the beginning of 2012, people of foreign background and their descendants were estimated to have formed around 25% of the total population i.e. 2.8 millionnew Belgians.[163] Of these new Belgians, 1,200,000 are of European ancestry and 1,350,000[164] are from non-Western countries (most of them fromMorocco,Turkey, and theDR Congo). Since the modification of theBelgian nationality law in 1984, more than1.3 million migrants have acquired Belgian citizenship. The largest group of immigrants and their descendants in Belgium areItalian Belgians andMoroccan Belgians.[165] 89.2% of inhabitants ofTurkish origin have been naturalized, as have 88.4% of people of Moroccan background, 75.4% of Italians, 56.2% of the French and 47.8% of Dutch people.[164]
Statbel released figures of the Belgian population in relation to the origin of people in Belgium. According to the data, as of 1 January 2021, 67.3% of the Belgian population was of ethnic Belgian origin, and 32.7% were of foreign origin or nationality, with 20.3% of those of a foreign nationality or ethnic group originating from neighbouring countries. The study also found that 74.5% of theBrussels Capital Region were of non-Belgian origin, of which 13.8% originated from neighbouring countries.[166]
Largest cities or towns in Belgium
Numbers according to the Belgium's National Register,[167] (1 January 2023)
Belgium has three official languages: Dutch, French and German. A number of non-official minority languages are spoken as well.[168] As no census exists, there are no official statistical data regarding the distribution or usage of Belgium's three official languages or theirdialects.[169] However, various criteria, including the language(s) of parents, of education, or the second-language status of foreign born, may provide suggested figures. An estimated 60% of the Belgian population are native speakers of Dutch (often referred to asFlemish), and 40% of the population speaks French natively. French-speaking Belgians are often referred to as Walloons, although the French speakers in Brussels are not Walloons.[k]
The total number of native Dutch speakers is estimated to be about 6.23 million, concentrated in the northern Flanders region, while native French speakers number 3.32 million in Wallonia and an estimated 870,000 (or 85%) in the officially bilingual Brussels-Capital Region.[l][170] TheGerman-speaking Community is made up of 73,000 people in the east of theWalloon Region; around 10,000 German and 60,000 Belgian nationals are speakers of German. Roughly 23,000 more German speakers live in municipalities near the official Community.[171][172][173][174]
BothBelgian Dutch andBelgian French haveminor differences in vocabulary and semantic nuances from the varieties spoken respectively in the Netherlands and France. Many Flemish people still speakdialects of Dutch in their local environment.Walloon, considered either as a dialect of French or a distinctRomance language,[175][176] is now only understood and spoken occasionally, mostly by elderly people. Walloon is divided into four dialects, which along with those ofPicard,[177] are rarely used in public life and have largely been replaced by French.
TheConstitution of Belgium provides for freedom of religion, and the government respects this right in practice.[178] Belgium officially recognizes three religions: Christianity (Catholic, Protestantism, Orthodox churches and Anglicanism), Islam and Judaism.[179] During the reigns ofAlbert I andBaudouin, theBelgian royal family had a reputation of deeply rooted Catholicism.[178]
Catholicism has traditionally been Belgium's majority religion; being especially strong in Flanders. However, by 2009 Sundaychurch attendance was 5% for Belgium in total; 3% in Brussels,[180] and 5.4% in Flanders. Church attendance in 2009 in Belgium was roughly half of the Sunday church attendance in 1998 (11% for the total of Belgium in 1998).[181] Despite the drop in church attendance, Catholic identity nevertheless remains an important part of Belgium's culture.[178]
According to the Eurobarometer 2010,[182] 37% of Belgian citizens believe in God, 31% in some sort of spirit or life-force. 27% do not believe in any sort of spirit, God, or life-force. 5% did not respond. According to the Eurobarometer 2015, 60.7% of the total population of Belgium adhered toChristianity, withCatholicism being the largest denomination with 52.9%. Protestants comprised 2.1% and Orthodox Christians were the 1.6% of the total. Non-religious people comprised 32.0% of the population and were divided between atheists (14.9%) and agnostics (17.1%). A further 5.2% of the population was Muslim and 2.1% were believers in other religions.[183] The same survey held in 2012 found that Christianity was the largest religion in Belgium, accounting for 65% ofBelgians.[184]
In the early 2000s, there were approximately 42,000 Jews in Belgium. TheJewish Community of Antwerp (numbering some 18,000) is one of the largest in Europe, and one of the last places in the world whereYiddish is the primary language of a large Jewish community (mirroring certain Orthodox and Hasidic communities in New York, New Jersey, and Israel). In addition, most Jewish children in Antwerp receive a Jewish education.[185] There are several Jewish newspapers and more than 45 active synagogues (30 of which are in Antwerp) in the country.A 2006 inquiry in Flanders, considered to be a more religious region than Wallonia, showed that 55% considered themselves religious and that 36% believed that God created the universe.[186] On the other hand, Wallonia has become one of Europe's most secular/least religious regions. Most of the French-speaking region's population does not consider religion an important part of their lives, and as much as 45% of the population identifies as irreligious. This is particularly the case in eastern Wallonia and areas along the French border.
A 2008 estimate found that approximately 6% of the Belgian population (628,751 people) isMuslim. Muslims constitute 23.6% of the population ofBrussels, 4.9% ofWallonia and 5.1% ofFlanders. The majority of Belgian Muslims live in the major cities, such asAntwerp, Brussels andCharleroi. The largest group of immigrants in Belgium are Moroccans, with 400,000 people. The Turks are the third largest group, and the second largest Muslim ethnic group, numbering 220,000.[187][188]
The Belgians enjoy good health. According to 2012 estimates, the average life expectancy is 79.65 years.[121] Since 1960, life expectancy has, in line with the European average, grown by two months per year. Death in Belgium is mainly due to heart and vascular disorders,neoplasms, disorders of the respiratory system and unnatural causes of death (accidents, suicide). Non-natural causes of death and cancer are the most common causes of death for females up to age 24 and males up to age 44.[189]
Healthcare in Belgium is financed through both social security contributions and taxation. Health insurance is compulsory. Health care is delivered by a mixed public and private system of independent medical practitioners and public, university and semi-private hospitals. Health care service are payable by the patient and reimbursed later by health insurance institutions, but for ineligible categories (of patients and services) so-called 3rd party payment systems exist.[189] The Belgian health care system is supervised and financed by the federal government, the Flemish and Walloon Regional governments; and the German Community also has (indirect) oversight and responsibilities.[189]
For the first time in Belgian history, the first child was euthanized following the 2-year mark of the removal of the euthanization age restrictions. The child had been euthanized due to an incurable disease that was inflicted upon the child. Although there may have been some support for the euthanization there is a possibility of controversy due to the issue revolving around the subject of assisted suicide.[190]
Excluding assisted suicide, Belgium has the highest suicide rate in Western Europe and one of thehighest suicide rates in thedeveloped world (exceeded only by Lithuania, South Korea, and Latvia).[191]
Education is compulsory from 6 to 18 years of age for Belgians.[192] AmongOECD countries in 2002, Belgium had the third highest proportion of 18- to 21-year-olds enrolled inpostsecondary education, at 42%.[193] Though an estimated 99% of the adult population is literate, concern is rising overfunctional illiteracy.[177][194] TheProgramme for International Student Assessment (PISA), coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Belgium's education as the 19th best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average.[195] Education is organized separately by each community. The Flemish Community scores noticeably above the French and German-speaking Communities.[196]
Mirroring the structure of the 19th-century Belgian political landscape, characterized by theLiberal and theCatholic parties, the educational system is segregated into secular and religious schools. The secular branch of schooling is controlled by the communities, the provinces, or the municipalities, while religious, mainlyCatholic branch education, is organized by religious authorities, which are also subsidized and supervised by the communities.[197]
Despite itspolitical and linguistic divisions, the region corresponding to today's Belgium has seen the flourishing of major artistic movements that have had tremendous influence on European art and culture. Nowadays, to a certain extent, cultural life is concentrated within each language Community, and a variety of barriers have made a shared cultural sphere less pronounced.[18][198][199] Since the 1970s, there are no bilingual universities or colleges in the country except theRoyal Military Academy and theAntwerp Maritime Academy.[200]
Belgian contributions to architecture also continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, including the work ofVictor Horta andHenry van de Velde, who were major initiators of theArt Nouveau style.[210][211]
Other examples are the three-dayCarnival of Aalst in February or March; the still very religious processions ofthe Holy Blood taking place inBruges in May, theVirga Jesse procession held every seven years inHasselt, theannual procession of Hanswijk in Mechelen, the 15 August festivities inLiège, and the Walloon festival inNamur. Originated in 1832 and revived in the 1960s, theGentse Feesten (a music and theatre festival organized in Ghent aroundBelgian National Day, on 21 July) have become a modern tradition. Several of these festivals include sporting competitions, such ascycling, and many fall under the category of kermesses.
A major non-official holiday (which is however not an official public holiday) isSaint Nicholas Day (Dutch:Sinterklaas, French:la Saint-Nicolas), a festivity for children, and in Liège, for students.[217] It takes place each year on 6 December and is a sort of earlyChristmas. On the evening of 5 December, before going to bed, children put their shoes by the hearth with water or wine and a carrot for Saint Nicholas' horse ordonkey. According to tradition, Saint Nicholas comes at night and travels down the chimney. He then takes the food and water or wine, leaves presents, goes back up, feeds his horse or donkey, and continues on his course. He also knows whether children have been good or bad. This holiday is especially loved by children in Belgium and the Netherlands. Dutch immigrants imported the tradition into theUnited States, where Saint Nicholas is now known asSanta Claus.
Moules-frites ormosselen met friet is a representative dish of Belgium.
Belgium is famous forbeer,chocolate,waffles andFrench fries. The national dishes aresteak and fries, andmussels with fries.[218][219][220] Many highly ranked Belgian restaurants can be found in the most influential restaurant guides, such as theMichelin Guide.[221] One of the many beers with the high prestige is that of theTrappistmonks. Technically, it is anale and traditionally each abbey's beer is served in its own glass (the forms, heights and widths are different). There are only eleven breweries (six of them are Belgian) that are allowed to brewTrappist beer.
Since the 1970s, sports clubs and federations are organized separately within eachlanguage community.[229] TheAdministration de l'Éducation Physique et du Sport (ADEPS) is responsible for recognising the various French-speaking sports federations and also runs three sports centres in the Brussels-Capital Region.[230] Its Dutch-speaking counterpart isSport Vlaanderen (formerly calledBLOSO).[231]
^The name "French Community" refers toFrancophoneBelgians, and not toFrench people residing in Belgium. As such, the French Community of Belgium is sometimes rendered in English as "the French-speaking Community of Belgium" for clarity.[16]
^Between 1885 and 1908, theCongo Free State, which was privately owned by KingLeopold II of Belgium, was characterized by widespreadatrocities and disease; amid public outcry in Europe, Belgium annexed the territory as a colony.[22]
^Since 2011, the French Community has used the name "Wallonia-Brussels Federation" (French:Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles), which is controversial because its name in theBelgian Constitution has not changed and because it is seen as a political statement.[100][101]
^The Constitution set out seven institutions each of which can have a parliament, government and administration. In fact, there are only six such bodies because the Flemish Region merged into the Flemish Community. This single Flemish body thus exercises powers about Community matters in the bilingual area of Brussels-Capital and in the Dutch language area, while about Regional matters only in Flanders.
^Native speakers of Dutch living in Wallonia and of French in Flanders are relatively small minorities that furthermore largely balance one another, hence attributing all inhabitants of each unilingual area to the area's language can cause only insignificant inaccuracies (99% can speak the language). Dutch: Flanders' 6.079 million inhabitants and about 15% of Brussels' 1.019 million are 6.23 million or 59.3% of the 10.511 million inhabitants of Belgium (2006); German: 70,400 in the German-speaking Community (which haslanguage facilities for its less than 5% French-speakers) and an estimated 20,000–25,000 speakers of German in the Walloon Region outside the geographical boundaries of their official Community, or 0.9%; French: in the latter area as well as mainly in the rest of Wallonia (3.321 million) and 85% of the Brussels inhabitants (0.866 million) thus 4.187 million or 39.8%; together indeed 100%.
^Flemish Academic Eric Corijn (initiator ofCharta 91), at a colloquium regarding Brussels, on 2001-12-05, states that in Brussels 91% of the population speaks French at home, either alone or with another language, and about 20% speaks Dutch at home, either alone (9%) or with French (11%)—After ponderation, the repartition can be estimated at between 85 and 90% French-speaking, and the remaining are Dutch-speaking, corresponding to the estimations based on languages chosen in Brussels by citizens for their official documents (ID, driving licenses, weddings, birth, sex, and so on); all these statistics on language are also available at Belgian Department of Justice (for weddings, birth, sex), Department of Transport (for Driving licenses), Department of Interior (for IDs), because there are no means to knowprecisely the proportions since Belgium has abolished 'official' linguistic censuses, thus official documents on language choices can only be estimations. For a web source on this topic, see e.g.General online sources: Janssens, Rudi
^The Dutch wordommegang is here used in the sense of an entirely or mainly non-religious procession, or the non-religious part thereof—see alsoits article on the Dutch-language Wikipedia; the Processional Giants of Brussels, Dendermonde and Mechelen mentioned in this paragraph are part of each city'sommegang. The French wordducasse refers also to a procession; the mentioned Processional Giants of Ath and Mons are part of each city'sducasse.
^The Belgian Constitution(PDF). Brussels, Belgium: Belgian House of Representatives. May 2014. p. 63.Archived(PDF) from the original on 10 August 2015. Retrieved10 September 2015.
^The Belgian Constitution(PDF). Brussels, Belgium: Belgian House of Representatives. May 2014. p. 5. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 10 August 2015. Retrieved10 September 2015.Article 3: Belgium comprises three Regions: the Flemish Region, the Walloon Region and the Brussels Region. Article 4: Belgium comprises four linguistic regions: the Dutch-speaking region, the French-speaking region, the bilingual region of Brussels-Capital and the German-speaking region.
^Caesar,Gallic War,8.46Archived 11 August 2023 at theWayback Machine "quattuor legionesin Belgio collocavit", "his confectis rebus ad legionesin Belgium se recipit hibernatque Nemetocennae". (In online English translations the second part is often included in the next paragraph8.47Archived 21 June 2023 at theWayback Machine.Wightman, Edith (1985),Gallia Belgica, University of California Press, p. 12,ISBN978-0-520-05297-0.González Villaescusa; Jacquemin (2011), "Gallia Belgica: An Entity with No National Claim",Études rurales,2 (2):93–111,doi:10.4000/etudesrurales.9499
^Werner, Matthias (1980),Der Lütticher Raum in frühkarolingischer Zeit : Untersuchungen zur Geschichte einer karolingischen Stammlandschaft
^Edmundson, George (1922)."Chapter I: The Burgundian Netherlands".History of Holland. The University Press, Cambridge. Republished: Authorama.Archived from the original on 28 April 2011. Retrieved15 December 2010.
^"Belgium—The land—Relief".Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Chicago, Illinois, US. 2007. Archived fromthe original on 17 December 2013. Retrieved3 July 2007.
^"Life—Nature"(PDF). Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 2005.Archived(PDF) from the original on 25 September 2007. Retrieved10 August 2007.
^"Climate averages—Brussels". EuroWEATHER/EuroMETEO, Nautica Editrice Srl, Rome, Italy.Archived from the original on 21 October 2007. Retrieved27 May 2007.
^ab"Background Note: Belgium". U.S. Department of States. 29 April 2010.Archived from the original on 21 January 2017. Retrieved26 November 2010.
^"Belgium – Political parties".European Election Database. Norwegian Social Science Data Services. 2010.Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved10 December 2010.
^"La Chambre des représentants—Composition" [Composition of the Chamber of Representatives](PDF) (in French). The Chamber of Representatives of Belgium. 9 March 2006.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 November 2006. Retrieved25 May 2007.
^"Rwanda".tiscali.reference. Tiscali UK. Archived fromthe original on 24 September 2009. Retrieved27 May 2007. The article shows an example of Belgium's recent[when?] African policies.
^"Time-line Belgium".BBC News. 5 January 2009.Archived from the original on 29 September 2009. Retrieved16 July 2009.2007 September – Belgium without a government for 100 days.
^Kramer, Johannes (1984).Zweisprachigkeit in den Benelux-ländern (in German). Buske Verlag. p. 69.ISBN978-3-87118-597-7.Zur prestige Sprache wurde in den Spanischen Niederlanden ganz eindeutig das Französische. Die Vertreter Spaniens beherrschten normalerweise das Französische, nicht aber das Niederländische; ein beachtlicher Teil der am Hofe tätigen Adligen stammte aus Wallonien, das sich ja eher auf die spanische Seite geschlagen hatte als Flandern und Brabant. In dieser Situation war es selbstverständlich, dass die flämischen Adligen, die im Laufe der Zeit immer mehr ebenfalls zu Hofbeamten wurden, sich des Französischen bedienen mussten, wenn sie als gleichwertig anerkannt werden wollten. [Transl.: The prestigious language in the Spanish Netherlands was clearly French. Spain's representatives usually mastered French but not Dutch; a notable part of the nobles at the court came from Wallonia, which had taken party for the Spanish side to a higher extent than Flanders and Brabant. It was therefore evident within this context that the Flemish nobility, of which a progressively larger number became servants of the court, had to use French, if it wanted to get acknowledged as well.]
^Witte, Els; Craeybeckx, Jan & Meynen, Alain (2009).Political History of Belgium: From 1830 Onwards. Brussels: Academic and Scientific Publishers. p. 56.
^Lagasse, Charles-Etienne (2003).Les nouvelles institutions politiques de la Belgique et de l'Europe. Namur: Erasme. p. 289.ISBN978-2-87127-783-5.In 2002, 58.92% of the fiscal income was going to the budget of the federal government, but more than one-third was used to pay the interests of the public debt. Without including this post, the share of the federal government budget would be only 48.40% of the fiscal income. There are 87.8% of the civil servants who are working for the Regions or the Communities and 12.2% for the Federal State.
^"The Communities"..be Portal. Belgian Federal Government. 3 October 2010.Archived from the original on 15 June 2011. Retrieved26 June 2011.
^"The Regions"..be Portal. Belgian Federal Government. 3 October 2010.Archived from the original on 15 June 2011. Retrieved26 June 2011.
^Lagasse, Charles-Etienne (18 May 2004)."Federalism in Russia, Canada and Belgium: experience of comparative research" (in French). Kazan Institute of Federalism.Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved5 October 2008.La Belgique constitue ainsi le seul exemple clair du transfert d'une partie de la compétence " affaires étrangères " à des entités fédérées. (Transl.: Belgium is thus the only clear example of a transfer of a part of the "Foreign Affairs" competences to federated units.)
^Lagasse, Charles-Etienne.Les nouvelles institutions de la Belgique et de l'Europe (in French). p. 603.[Le fédéralisme belge] repose sur une combinaison unique d'équipollence, d'exclusivité et de prolongement international des compétences. ([Belgian federalism] is based on a unique combination of equipollence, of exclusivity, and of international extension of competences.)
^Suinen, Philippe (October 2000)."Une Première mondiale".Le Monde diplomatique (in French).Archived from the original on 17 November 2000. Retrieved5 October 2008.Dans l'organisation de ces autonomies, la Belgique a réalisé une " première " mondiale: afin d'éviter la remise en cause, par le biais de la dimension internationale, de compétences exclusives transférées aux entités fédérées, les communautés et régions se sont vu reconnaître une capacité et des pouvoirs internationaux. (In organizing its autonomies, Belgium realized a World's First: to avoid a relevant stalemate, international consequences caused transfers of exclusive competences to federal, community and regional entities that are recognized to have become internationally enabled and empowered.)
^abIISS (2023).The Military Balance 2023. International Institute for Strategic Studies. p. 75.
^"Rank Order – Exports".CIA – The 2008 world factbook. Archived fromthe original on 4 October 2008. Retrieved5 October 2008.15[th]: Belgium $322,200,000,000 (2007 est.)
^"Rank Order – Imports".CIA – The 2008 world factbook. Archived fromthe original on 4 October 2008. Retrieved5 October 2008.15[th]: Belgium $323,200,000,000 (2007 est.)
^"Belgian economy".Belgium. Belgian Federal Public Service (ministry) of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation.Archived from the original on 15 June 2009. Retrieved12 June 2009.Belgium is the world leader in terms of export per capita and can justifiably call itself the 'world's largest exporter'.
^"Rembert Dodoens: iets over zijn leven en werk—Dodoens' werken".Plantaardigheden—Project Rembert Dodoens (Rembertus Dodonaeus) (in Dutch). Balkbrug: Stichting Kruidenhoeve/Plantaardigheden. 20 December 2005.Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. Retrieved17 May 2007.het Cruijdeboeck, dat in 1554 verscheen. Dit meesterwerk was na de bijbel in die tijd het meest vertaalde boek. Het werd gedurende meer dan een eeuw steeds weer heruitgegeven en gedurende meer dan twee eeuwen was het het meest gebruikte handboek over kruiden in West-Europa. Het is een werk van wereldfaam en grote wetenschappelijke waarde. De nieuwe gedachten die Dodoens erin neerlegde, werden de bouwstenen voor de botanici en medici van latere generaties.(... the Cruijdeboeck, published in 1554. This masterpiece was, after the Bible, the most translated book in that time. It continued to be republished for more than a century and for more than two centuries it was the mostly used referential about herbs. It is a work with world fame and great scientific value. The new thoughts written down by Dodoens, became the building bricks for botanists and physicians of later generations.)
^O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (2004)."Simon Stevin".MacTutor History of Mathematics. School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Archived fromthe original on 9 June 2007. Retrieved11 May 2007.Although he did not invent decimals (they had been used by the Arabs and the Chinese long before Stevin's time) he did introduce their use in mathematics in Europe.
^De Broe, Marc E.; De Weerdt, Dirk L.; Ysebaert, Dirk K.; Vercauteren, Sven R.; De Greef, Kathleen E.; De Broe, Luc C. (1999)."Abstract (*)".American Journal of Nephrology.19 (2):282–289.doi:10.1159/000013462.PMID10213829.The importance of A. Vesalius' publication 'de humani corporis fabrica libri septem'cannot be overestimated. (*) Free abstract for pay-per-view article byDe Broe, Marc E.; De Weerdt, Dirk L.; Ysebaert, Dirk K.; Vercauteren, Sven R.; De Greef, Kathleen E.; De Broe, Luc C. (1999)."The Low Countries – 16th/17th century".American Journal of Nephrology.19 (2):282–9.doi:10.1159/000013462.PMID10213829.
^de Witte, Bruno (1996). Rainey, Anson F. (ed.). "Surviving in Babel? Language rights and European integration".Canaanite in the Amarna Tablets. Vol. 1. Brill. p. 122.ISBN978-90-04-10521-8.
^"Belgium Market background".British Council. Archived fromthe original on 22 November 2007. Retrieved5 May 2007.The capital Brussels, 80–85 percent French-speaking, ...—Strictly, the capital is the municipality(City of) Brussels, though the Brussels-Capital Region might be intended because of its name and also its other municipalities housing institutions typical for a capital.
^Jules, Feller (1912).Notes de philologie wallonne. Liège: Vaillant Carmanne.
^abAmong Belgium native German speakers many are familiar with the local dialect varieties of their region, that include dialects that spill over into neighboring Luxembourg and Germany.Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., ed. (2005). "Languages of Belgium".Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Fifteenth ed.). Dallas, Texas, U.S.:SIL International. (Online version:Sixteenth editionArchived 3 December 2005 at theWayback Machine)
^abcLoopbuyck, P. & Torfs, R. (2009).The world and its people – Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Vol. 4. Marshall Cavendish. p. 499.ISBN978-0-7614-7890-4.
^Inquiry by 'Vepec', 'Vereniging voor Promotie en Communicatie' (Organization for Promotion and Communication), published in Knack magazine22 November 2006 p. 14 [The Dutch language term 'gelovig' is in the text translated as 'religious'. More precisely it is a very common word for believing in particular in any kind of God in amonotheistic sense or in someafterlife], or both.
^"Belgium—Arts and cultural education".Compendium of Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe, 8th edition. Council of Europe / ERICarts. 2007.Archived from the original on 31 August 2007. Retrieved8 May 2007.
^"Low Countries, 1400–1600 AD".Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2007.Archived from the original on 29 April 2007. Retrieved10 May 2007.
^Several examples of major architectural realizations in Belgium belong toUNESCO'sWorld Heritage List:"Belgium".Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List.UNESCO.Archived from the original on 28 April 2007. Retrieved15 May 2007.
^Hendrick, Jacques (1987).La peinture au pays de Liège (in French). Liège: Editions du Perron. p. 24.ISBN978-2-87114-026-9.
^Guratzsch, Herwig (1979).Die große Zeit der niederländische Malerei (in German). Freiburg im Beisgau: Verlag Herder. p. 7.
^"Low Countries, 1600–1800 AD".Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2007.Archived from the original on 13 May 2007. Retrieved10 May 2007.
^Baudson, Michel (1996)."Panamarenko". Flammarion (Paris), quoted at presentation of the XXIII Bienal Internacional de São Paulo. Archived fromthe original on 7 February 2007. Retrieved10 May 2007.
^"Major Town Houses of the Architect Victor Horta (Brussels)".UNESCO'sWorld Heritage List. UNESCO.Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved16 May 2007.The appearance of Art Nouveau in the closing years of the 19th century marked a decisive stage in the evolution of architecture, making possible subsequent developments, and the Town Houses of Victor Horta in Brussels bear exceptional witness to its radical new approach.
^"Western music, the Franco-Flemish school".Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007.Archived from the original on 8 December 2006. Retrieved15 May 2007.Most significant musically was the pervasive influence of musicians from the Low Countries, whose domination of the music scene during the last half of the 15th century is reflected in the period designations the Netherlands school and the Franco-Flemish school.
^Two comprehensive discussions of rock and pop music in Belgium since the 1950s: "The Timeline—A brief history of Belgian Pop Music".The Belgian Pop & Rock Archives. Flanders Music Centre, Brussels. March 2007.Archived from the original on 12 July 2007. Retrieved7 June 2007. "Belgian Culture—Rock". Vanberg & DeWulf Importing. 2006. Archived fromthe original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved11 May 2007.
^Grove, Laurence (2010).Comics in French: the European bande dessinée in context. Berghahn Books.ISBN978-1-84545-588-0.
^A review of the Belgian cinema till about 2000 can be found at"History of Cinema in Belgium".Film Birth. 2007. Archived fromthe original on 14 September 2011. Retrieved26 June 2011.
^"Steak-frites". Epicurious. 20 August 2004.Archived from the original on 8 August 2007. Retrieved12 August 2007. Republished fromVan Waerebeek, Ruth; Robbins, Maria (October 1996).Everybody Eats Well in Belgium Cookbook. Workman Publishing.ISBN978-1-56305-411-2.
^"Belgium". Global Gourmet. Archived fromthe original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved12 August 2007. Republished fromVan Waerebeek, Ruth; Robbins, Maria (October 1996).Everybody Eats Well in Belgium Cookbook. Workman Publishing.ISBN978-1-56305-411-2.
^Task, Marijke; Renson, Roland & van Reusel, Bart (1999). "Organised sport in transition: development, structures and trends of sports clubs in Belgium". In Klaus Heinemann (ed.).Sport Clubs in Various European Countries. Schattauer Verlag. pp. 183–229.ISBN978-3-7945-2038-1.
^Woods, Bob (2008).Motocross History: From Local Scrambling to World Championship MX to Freestyle. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 19.ISBN978-0-7787-3987-6.
"Boordtabel" (in Dutch). Centre for Information, Documentation and Research on Brussels (BRIO). 2007. Archived fromthe original on 29 May 2007. Retrieved2 June 2007. (mentioning other original sources)
"The Constitution". Federal Parliament Belgium. 21 January 1997. Archived fromthe original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved7 June 2007.
"Country Portal – Europe—Belgium". Belgian Federal Government Service (ministry) of Economy—Directorate-general Statistics Belgium. Archived fromthe original on 1 July 2007. Retrieved7 June 2007.
"History of Belgium".World History at KMLA. Korean Minjok Leadership Academy (KMLA). 30 May 2007.Archived from the original on 6 July 2007. Retrieved2 June 2007.
Leclerc, Jacques (2006)."Belgique • België • Belgien".L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde (in French). Host: Trésor de la langue française au Québec (TLFQ),Université Laval, Quebec. Archived fromthe original on 8 June 2007. Retrieved2 June 2007.
Mnookin, Robert; Verbeke, Alain (20 December 2006)."Bye bye Belgium?". International Herald Tribune, republished byHarvard Law School.Archived from the original on 21 March 2007. Retrieved1 June 2007.—Reflections on nations and nation-state developments regarding Belgium
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