Anthem: Дзяржаўны гімн Рэспублікі Беларусь(Belarusian) Dziaržaŭny Himn Respubliki Biełaruś Государственный гимн Республики Беларусь(Russian) Gosudarstvennyy gimn Respubliki Belarus "State Anthem of the Republic of Belarus"
Belarus,[b] officially theRepublic of Belarus,[c] is alandlocked country inEastern Europe. It is bordered byRussia to the east and northeast,Ukraine to the south,Poland to the west, andLithuania andLatvia to the northwest. Belarus spans an area of 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) with a population of9.1 million. The country has ahemiboreal climate and is administratively divided intosix regions.Minsk is the capital andlargest city; it is administered separately as a city with special status.
The parliament of the republic proclaimed thesovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990, and during thedissolution of the Soviet Union, Belarus gained independence on 25 August 1991. Following the adoption of a newconstitution in 1994,Alexander Lukashenko was elected Belarus's first president in the country's first and only freeelection after independence, serving as president ever since. Lukashenko heads a highly centralizedauthoritarian government. Belarusranks low in international measurements offreedom of the press andcivil liberties. It has continued several Soviet-era policies, such asstate ownership of large sections of theeconomy. Belarus is the only European country that continues to usecapital punishment. In 2000, Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, forming theUnion State.
The nameBelarus is closely related with the termBelaya Rus', i.e.,White Rus'.[14] There are several claims to the origin of the nameWhite Rus'.[15] An ethno-religious theory suggests that the name used to describe the part of oldRuthenian lands within theGrand Duchy of Lithuania that had been populated mostly bySlavs who had been Christianized early, as opposed toBlack Ruthenia, which was predominantly inhabited by paganBalts.[16] An alternative explanation for the name comments on the white clothing the local Slavic population wears.[15] A third theory suggests that the old Rus' lands that were not conquered by theTatars (i.e., Polotsk, Vitebsk, and Mogilev) had been referred to asWhite Rus'.[15] A fourth theory suggests that the color white was associated with the west, and Belarus was the western part ofRus' in the 9th to 13th centuries.[17]
The nameRus' is often conflated with its Latin formsRussia andRuthenia, thus Belarus is often referred to asWhite Russia orWhite Ruthenia. The name first appeared inGerman andLatinmedieval literature; the chronicles ofJan of Czarnków mention the imprisonment of Lithuanian grand dukeJogaila and his mother at "Albae Russiae, Poloczk dicto" in 1381.[18] The first known use ofWhite Russia to refer to Belarus was in the late-16th century by Englishman SirJerome Horsey, who was known for his close contacts with the Russian royal court.[19] During the 17th century, the Russiantsars used the term to describe the lands added from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[20]
The termBelorussia (Russian:Белору́ссия, the latter part similar but spelled and stressed differently fromРосси́я,Russia) first rose in the days of theRussian Empire, and the Russian Tsar was usually styled "the Tsar of All the Russias", asRussia or theRussian Empire was formed by three parts of Russia—theGreat,Little, andWhite.[21] This asserted that the territories are all Russian and all the peoples are also Russian; in the case of the Belarusians, they were variants of the Russian people.[22]
After theBolshevik Revolution in 1917, the termWhite Russia caused some confusion, as it was also the name of the military force that opposed the red Bolsheviks.[23] During the period of the Byelorussian SSR, the termByelorussia was embraced as part of a national consciousness. In western Belarus under Polish control,Byelorussia became commonly used in the regions ofBiałystok andGrodno during the interwar period.[24]
The termByelorussia (its names in other languages such as English being based on the Russian form) was used officially only until 1991. Officially, the full name of the country isRepublic of Belarus (Рэспубліка Беларусь,Республика Беларусь,Respublika Belarus).[25][26] In Russia, the usage ofBelorussia is still very common.[27]
In Lithuanian, besidesBaltarusija (White Russia), Belarus is also calledGudija.[28][29] The etymology of the wordGudija is not clear. By one hypothesis the word derives from theOld Prussian nameGudwa, which, in turn, is related to the formŻudwa, which is a distorted version ofSudwa, Sudovia. Sudovia, in its turn, is one of the names of theYotvingians. Another hypothesis connects the word with theGothic Kingdom that occupied parts of the territory of modern Belarus and Ukraine in the 4th and 5th centuries. The self-naming of Goths wasGutans andGytos, which are close to Gudija. Yet another hypothesis is based on the idea thatGudija in Lithuanian means "the other" and may have been used historically by Lithuanians to refer to any people who did not speak Lithuanian.[30]
From 5000 to 2000 BC, theBandkeramik predominated in what now constitutes Belarus, and theCimmerians as well as other pastoralists roamed through the area by 1,000 BC. TheZarubintsy culture later became widespread at the beginning of the1st millennium. In addition, remains from theDnieper–Donets culture were found in Belarus and parts ofUkraine.[31] The region was first permanently settled byBaltic tribes in the 3rd century. Around the 5th century, the area was taken over by the Slavs. The takeover was partially due to the lack of military coordination of the Balts, but their gradual assimilation into Slavic culture was peaceful.[32] Invaders fromAsia, among whom were theHuns andAvars, swept through c. 400–600 AD, but were unable to dislodge the Slavic presence.[33]
Principalities in Eastern Europe before the Mongol and Lithuanian invasions
In the 9th century, the territory of modern Belarus became part ofKievan Rus', a vast East Slavic state ruled by theRurikids. Upon the death of its rulerYaroslav the Wise in 1054, the state split into independent principalities.[34] TheBattle on the Nemiga River in 1067 was one of the more notable events of the period, the date of which is considered the founding date ofMinsk.
Many early principalities were virtually razed or severely affected by a majorMongol invasion in the 13th century, but the lands of modern-day Belarus avoided the brunt of the invasion and eventually joined theGrand Duchy of Lithuania.[35] There are no sources of military seizure, but the annals affirm the alliance and united foreign policy ofPolotsk and Lithuania for decades.[36]
Incorporation into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania resulted in an economic, political, and ethno-cultural unification of Belarusian lands.[37] Of the principalities held by the duchy, nine of them were settled by a population that would eventually become theBelarusians.[38] During this time, the duchy was involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side ofPoland against theTeutonic Knights at theBattle of Grunwald in 1410; the joint victory allowed the duchy to control the northwestern borderlands ofEastern Europe.[39]
In the years following the union, the process of gradualPolonization of both Lithuanians and Ruthenians gained steady momentum. In culture and social life, both thePolish language andCatholicism became dominant, and in 1696, Polish replaced Ruthenian as the official language, with Ruthenian being banned from administrative use.[44] However, the Ruthenian peasants continued to speak their native language. Also, theBelarusian Byzantine Catholic Church was formed by the Poles to bring Orthodox Christians into theSee of Rome. The Belarusian church entered into a fullcommunion with theLatin Church through theUnion of Brest in 1595, while keeping its Byzantineliturgy in theChurch Slavonic language.
In aRussification drive in the 1840s,Nicholas I prohibited the use of the Belarusian language in public schools, campaigned against Belarusian publications, and tried to pressure those who had converted to Catholicism under the Poles to reconvert to the Orthodox faith. In 1863, economic and cultural pressure exploded in arevolt, led byKonstanty Kalinowski (also known as Kastus). After the failed revolt, the Russian government reintroduced the use ofCyrillic to Belarusian in 1864 and no documents in Belarusian were permitted by the Russian government until 1905.[51]
During the negotiations of theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk, Belarus first declared independence under German occupation on 25 March 1918, forming theBelarusian People's Republic.[52][53] Immediately afterwards, thePolish–Soviet War ignited, and the territory of Belarus was divided between Poland and Soviet Russia.[54] The Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic exists as agovernment in exile ever since then; in fact, it is currently the world's longest serving government in exile.[55]
TheBelarusian People's Republic was the first attempt to create an independent Belarusian state under the name "Belarus". Despite significant efforts, the state ceased to exist, primarily because the territory was continually dominated by theImperial German Army and theImperial Russian Army inWorld War I, and then theBolshevikRed Army. It existed from only 1918 to 1919 but created prerequisites for the formation of a Belarusian state. The choice of name was probably based on the fact that core members of the newly formed government were educated in tsarist universities, with corresponding emphasis on the ideology of West-Russianism.[56]
TheRepublic of Central Lithuania was a short-lived political entity, which was the last attempt to restore Lithuania to the historical confederacy state (it was also supposed to create Lithuania Upper and Lithuania Lower). The republic was created in 1920 followingthe staged rebellion of soldiers of the1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division of thePolish Army underLucjan Żeligowski. Centered on the historical capital of theGrand Duchy of Lithuania,Vilna (Lithuanian:Vilnius,Polish:Wilno), for 18 months the entity served as abuffer state betweenPoland, upon which it depended, and Lithuania, which claimed the area.[57] After a variety of delays,a disputed election took place on 8 January 1922, and the territory was annexed to Poland. Żeligowski later in his memoir which was published in London in 1943 condemned the annexation of the Republic by Poland, as well as the policy of closing Belarusian schools and general disregard of MarshalJózef Piłsudski's confederation plans by Polish ally.[58]
Meeting in theKurapaty woods, 1989, where between 1937 and 1941 from 30,000 to 250,000 people, including Belarusianintelligentsia members, weremurdered by theNKVD during theGreat Purge
The contested lands were divided between Poland and theSoviet Union after the war ended in 1921, and the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922.[52][60] In the 1920s and 1930s, Soviet agricultural and economic policies, includingcollectivization andfive-year plans for the national economy, led to famine and political repression.[61]
Thewestern part of modern Belarus remained part of theSecond Polish Republic.[62][63] After an early period of liberalization, tensions between increasingly nationalistic Polish government and various increasingly separatist ethnic minorities started to grow, and theBelarusian minority was no exception.[64][65] Thepolonization drive was inspired and influenced by the PolishNational Democracy, led byRoman Dmowski, who advocated refusing Belarusians and Ukrainians the right for a free national development.[66] A Belarusian organization, theBelarusian Peasants' and Workers' Union, was banned in 1927, and opposition to Polish government was met with state repressions.[64][65] Nonetheless, compared to the (larger)Ukrainian minority, Belarusians were much less politically aware and active, and thus suffered fewer repressions than the Ukrainians.[64][65] In 1935, after the death of Piłsudski, a new wave of repressions was released upon the minorities, with manyOrthodox churches and Belarusian schools being closed.[64][65] Use of theBelarusian language was discouraged.[67] Belarusian leadership was sent toBereza Kartuska prison.[68]
German soldiers inMinsk, August 1941Khatyn Memorial; during World War II the German Nazis murdered civilians in 5,295 different localities inoccupied Soviet Belarus.
In September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded and occupied eastern Poland, following the Germaninvasion of Poland two weeks earlier which marked the beginning ofWorld War II. The territories ofWestern Belorussia wereannexed and incorporated into the Byelorussian SSR.[69][70][71][72] The Soviet-controlled Byelorussian People's Council officially took control of the territories, whose populations consisted of a mixture of Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Jews, on28 October 1939 inBiałystok. Nazi Germanyinvaded the Soviet Union in 1941. Thedefense ofBrest Fortress was the first major battle ofOperation Barbarossa.
The Byelorussian SSR was the hardest-hit Soviet republic in World War II; it remained underGerman occupation until 1944. The GermanGeneralplan Ost called for the extermination, expulsion, or enslavement of most or all Belarusians to provide moreliving space in theEast for Germans.[73] Most of Western Belarus became part of theReichskommissariat Ostland in 1941, but in 1943 the German authorities allowed localcollaborators to set up a client state, theBelarusian Central Council.[74]
During World War II, Belarus was home to a variety ofguerrilla movements, including Jewish, Polish, and Soviet partisans. Belarusian partisan formations formed a large part of theSoviet partisans,[75] and in the modern day these partisans have formed a core part of the Belarusian national identity, with Belarus continuing to refer to itself as the "partisan republic" since the 1970s.[76][77] Following the war, many former Soviet partisans entered positions of government, among themPyotr Masherov andKirill Mazurov, both of whom were First Secretary of the Communist Party of Byelorussia. Until the late 1970s, the Belarusian government was almost entirely composed of former partisans.[78] Numerous pieces of media have been made about the Belarusian partisans, including the 1985 filmCome and See and the works of authorsAles Adamovich andVasil Bykaŭ.
The German occupation in 1941–1944 and war on theEastern Front devastated Belarus. During that time, 209 out of 290 towns and cities were destroyed, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings. After the war, it was estimated that 2.2 million local inhabitants had died, and of those some 810,000 were combatants—some foreign. This figure representeda staggering quarter of the prewar population.[79] In the 1990s some raised the estimate even higher, to 2.7 million.[80] TheJewish population of Belarus was devastated duringthe Holocaust and never recovered.[79][81][82] The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971.[81] Belarus was also hit hard economically, losing around half of its economic resources.[79]
Post-war
Belarusian poster where the text reads "Long live the Stalinist constitution of victorious socialism and true democracy!" (issued in 1940)
The borders of the Byelorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn, in accord with the 1919-proposedCurzon Line.[47] Byelorus gained territory to the west: the formerly PolishKresy.
Joseph Stalin implemented a policy ofSovietization to isolate the Byelorussian SSR fromWestern influences.[81] This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government. After Stalin died in 1953,Nikita Khrushchev continued his predecessor'scultural hegemony program, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian, the faster we shall build communism."[81]
Between Stalin's death in 1953 and 1980, Belarusian politics was dominated by former members of the Soviet partisans, including First Secretaries Kirill Mazurov and Pyotr Masherov.[78] Mazurov and Masherov oversaw Belarus'srapid industrialisation and transformation from one of the Soviet Union's poorest republics into one of its richest.[83] In 1986, the Byelorussian SSR was contaminated with most (70%) of thenuclear fallout from the explosion at theChernobyl power plant located 16 km beyond the border in the neighboringUkrainian SSR.[84][85]
By the late 1980s, political liberalization led to a national revival, with theBelarusian Popular Front becoming a major pro-independence force.[86][87]
In January 1992, theBelarusian Popular Front campaigned for early elections later in the year, two years before they were scheduled. By May of that year, about 383,000 signatures had been collected for a petition to hold the referendum, which was 23,000 more than legally required to be put to a referendum at the time. Despite this, the meeting of theSupreme Council of the Republic of Belarus to ultimately decide the date for the referendum was delayed by six months. However, with no evidence to suggest such, the Supreme Council rejected the petition on the grounds of massive irregularities. Elections for the Supreme Council were set for March 1994. A new law on parliamentary elections failed to pass by 1993. Disputes over the referendum were accredited to the largely conservativeParty of Belarusian Communists, which controlled the Supreme Council at the time and was largely opposed to political and economic reform, with allegations that some of the deputies opposed Belarusian independence.[91]
The 2000s saw some economic disputes between Belarus and its primary economic partner, Russia. The first one was the2004 Russia–Belarus energy dispute when Russian energy giantGazprom ceased the import of gas into Belarus because of price disagreements. The2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute centered on accusations by Gazprom that Belarus was siphoning oil from theDruzhba pipeline that runs through Belarus. Two years later the so-calledMilk War, a trade dispute, started when Russia wanted Belarus to recognize the independence ofAbkhazia andSouth Ossetia and through a series of events ended up banning the import of dairy products from Belarus.
In 2011, Belarus suffereda severe economic crisis attributed to Lukashenko's government's centralized control of the economy, with inflation reaching 108.7%.[93] Around the same time the2011 Minsk Metro bombing occurred in which 15 people were killed and 204 were injured. Two suspects, who were arrested within two days, confessed to being the perpetrators and were executed by shooting in 2012. The official version of events as publicised by the Belarusian government was questioned in the unprecedented wording of theUN Security Council statement condemning "the apparent terrorist attack" intimating the possibility that the Belarusian government itself was behind the bombing.[94]
Mass protests erupted across the country following the disputed2020 Belarusian presidential election,[95] in which Lukashenko sought a sixth term in office.[96] Neighbouring countries Poland and Lithuania do not recognize Lukashenko as the legitimate president of Belarus and the Lithuanian government has allotted a residence for main opposition candidateSviatlana Tsikhanouskaya and other members of the Belarusian opposition inVilnius.[97][98][99][100][101] Neither is Lukashenko recognized as the legitimate president of Belarus by the European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom or the United States.[102][103][104][105] The European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States have all imposed sanctions against Belarus because of the rigged election and political oppression during the ongoing protests in the country.[106][107]Further sanctions were imposed in 2022 following thecountry's role and complicity in the Russian invasion of Ukraine; Russian troops were allowed to stage part of the invasion from Belarusian territory.[108][109] Sanctions were targeted towards not only corporate offices and individual officers of government, but also private individuals who work in thestate-owned enterprise industrial sector.[110]Norway andJapan have joined the sanctions regime which aims to isolate Belarus from the international supply chain. Most major Belarusian banks are also under restrictions.[110]
Many streams and 11,000 lakes are found in Belarus.[112] Three major rivers run through the country: theNeman, thePripyat, and theDnieper. The Neman flows westward towards the Baltic Sea and the Pripyat flows eastward to the Dnieper; the Dnieper flows southward towards theBlack Sea.[116]
The highest point isDzyarzhynskaya Hara (Dzyarzhynsk Hill) at 345 metres (1,132 ft), and the lowest point is on the Neman River at 90 m (295 ft).[112] The average elevation of Belarus is 160 m (525 ft)above sea level.[117] The climate features mild to cold winters, with January minimum temperatures ranging from −4 °C (24.8 °F) in southwest (Brest) to −8 °C (17.6 °F) in northeast (Vitebsk), and cool and moist summers with an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F).[118] Belarus has an average annual rainfall of 550 to 700 mm (21.7 to 27.6 in).[118] The country is in the transitional zone betweencontinental climates andmaritime climates.[112]
Natural resources includepeat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas,granite, dolomite (limestone),marl, chalk, sand, gravel, and clay.[112] About 70% of the radiation from neighboring Ukraine's 1986Chernobyl nuclear disaster entered Belarusian territory, and about a fifth of Belarusian land (principally farmland and forests in the southeastern regions) was affected by radiation fallout.[119] The United Nations and other agencies have aimed to reduce the level of radiation in affected areas, especially through the use ofcaesium binders andrapeseed cultivation, which are meant to decrease soil levels ofcaesium-137.[120][121]
In Belarusforest cover is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to 8,767,600 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 7,780,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forests covered 6,555,600 hectares (ha), and planted forests covered 2,212,000 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 2% was reported to beprimary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 16% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership.[122][123]
Belarus borders five countries:Latvia to the north,Lithuania to the northwest,Poland to the west,Russia to the north and the east, andUkraine to the south. Treaties in 1995 and 1996 demarcated Belarus's borders with Latvia and Lithuania, and Belarus ratified a 1997 treaty establishing the Belarus-Ukraine border in 2009.[124] Belarus and Lithuania ratified final border demarcation documents in February 2007.[125]
Belarus, by the constitution, is asemi-presidential republic withseparation of powers, governed by apresident and theNational Assembly. However, Belarus has been led by a highly centralized and authoritarian government,[126][4] and has often been described as "Europe's last dictatorship" and presidentAlexander Lukashenko as "Europe's last dictator"[127] by some media outlets, politicians and authors.[128][129][130][131] Belarus has been considered anautocracy where power is ultimately concentrated in the hands of the president, elections are not free andjudicial independence is weak.[132] TheCouncil of Europe removed Belarus from its observer status since 1997 as a response for election irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliamentby-elections.[133][134] Readmission of the country into the council is dependent on the completion of benchmarks set by the council, including the improvement ofhuman rights,rule of law, and democracy.[135]
Theterm for each presidency is five years. Under the 1994 constitution, the president could serve for only two terms as president, but achange in the constitution in 2004 eliminated term limits.[136] Lukashenko has been the president of Belarus since 1994. In 1996, Lukashenko called for a controversial vote to extend the presidential term from five to seven years, and as a resultthe election that was supposed to occur in 1999 was pushed back to 2001. Thereferendum on the extension was denounced as a "fantastic" fake by the chief electoral officer,Viktar Hanchar, who was removed from the office for official matters only during the campaign.[137] The National Assembly is abicameral parliament comprising the 110-memberHouse of Representatives (the lower house) and the 64-memberCouncil of the Republic (the upper house).[138]
The House of Representatives has the power to appoint theprime minister, make constitutional amendments, call for avote of confidence on the prime minister, and make suggestions on foreign and domestic policy.[139] The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president, and accept or reject the bills passed by the House of Representatives. Each chamber can veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the Constitution.[140]
The government includes a Council of Ministers, headed by the prime minister and five deputy prime ministers.[141] The members of this council need not be members of the legislature and are appointed by the president. The judiciary comprises theSupreme Court and specialized courts such as theConstitutional Court, which deals with specific issues related to constitutional and business law. The judges of national courts are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic. For criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the Supreme Court. The Belarusian Constitution forbids the use of special extrajudicial courts.[140]
Theformer flag of Belarus, used in 1918, thenin 1943–44 and then between 1991 and 1995, is widely used as a symbol of opposition to the government of Alexander Lukashenko.
In the2006 presidential election, Lukashenko was opposed byAlaksandar Milinkievič, who represented a coalition of opposition parties, and byAlyaksandr Kazulin of the Social Democrats. Kazulin was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding theAll Belarusian People's Assembly. Lukashenko won the election with 80% of the vote; the Russian Federation and theCIS deemed the vote open and fair[153] while the OSCE and other organizations called the election unfair.[154]
After the December completion of the2010 presidential election, Lukashenko was elected to a fourth straight term with nearly 80% of the vote in elections. The runner-up opposition leaderAndrei Sannikov received less than 3% of the vote; independent observers criticized the election as fraudulent. When opposition protesters took to the streets in Minsk, many people, including some presidential candidates, were beaten and arrested by the riot police.[155] Many of the candidates, including Sannikov, were sentenced to prison or house arrest for terms which are mainly and typically over four years.[156][157] Six months later amid an unprecedented economic crisis, activists utilized social networking to initiate a fresh round of protests characterized by wordless hand-clapping.[158]
In the2012 parliamentary election, 105 of the 110 members elected to the House of Representatives were not affiliated with any political party. TheCommunist Party of Belarus won 3 seats, and theBelarusian Agrarian Party and RPTS, one each.[159] Most non-partisans represent a wide scope of social organizations such as workers' collectives, public associations, and civil society organizations, similar to the composition of the Soviet legislature.[160]
The Byelorussian SSR was one of the two Soviet republics that joined theUnited Nations along with the Ukrainian SSR as one of the original 51 members in 1945.[162] Belarus and Russia have been close trading partners and diplomatic allies since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Belarus is dependent on Russia for imports of raw materials and for its export market.[163]
TheUnion State, a supranational confederation between Belarus and Russia, was established in a 1996–99 series of treaties that called for monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defense policy. However, the future of the union has been placed in doubt because of Belarus's repeated delays of monetary union, the lack of a referendum date for the draft constitution, and adispute over the petroleum trade.[163][164] Belarus was a founding member of theCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS).[165] Belarus has trade agreements with severalEuropean Union member states (despite other member states' travel ban on Lukashenko and top officials),[166] including neighboring Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland.[167] Travel bans imposed by the European Union have been lifted in the past in order to allow Lukashenko to attend diplomatic meetings and also to engage his government and opposition groups in dialogue.[168]
Leaders of Belarus, Russia, Germany, France, and Ukraine at the summit inMinsk, 11–12 February 2015
Bilateral relations with the United States are strained; the United States has not had an ambassador in Minsk since 2007 and Belarus has not had an ambassador in Washington since 2008.[169][170] Diplomatic relations remained tense, and in 2004, the United States passed theBelarus Democracy Act, which authorized funding for anti-government Belarusian NGOs, and prohibited loans to the Belarusian government, except for humanitarian purposes.[171]
Soldiers patrol in theBiałowieża Forest on the Belarusian border with Poland
Lieutenant GeneralViktor Khrenin heads the Ministry of Defence,[181] and Alexander Lukashenko (as president) serves as Commander-in-Chief.[140] The armed forces were formed in 1992 using parts of the formerSoviet Armed Forces on the new republic's territory. The transformation of the ex-Soviet forces into the Armed Forces of Belarus, which was completed in 1997, reduced the number of its soldiers by 30,000 and restructured its leadership and military formations.[182]
Most of Belarus's service members areconscripts, who serve for 12 months if they have higher education or 18 months if they do not.[183] Demographic decreases in the Belarusians of conscription age have increased the importance of contract soldiers, who numbered 12,000 in 2001.[184] In 2005, about 1.4% of Belarus's gross domestic product was devoted to military expenditure.[185]
Belarus has not expressed a desire to joinNATO but has participated in the Individual Partnership Program since 1997,[186] and Belarus provided refueling and airspace support for theInternational Security Assistance Force mission inAfghanistan.[187] Belarus first began to cooperate with NATO upon signing documents to participate in their Partnership for Peace Program in 1995.[188] However, Belarus cannot join NATO because it is a member of the CSTO. Tensions between NATO and Belarus peaked after the March 2006 presidential election in Belarus.[189]
Amnesty International,[190] andHuman Rights Watch[191] have criticized Lukashenko's violations of human rights. Belarus'sDemocracy Index rating is the lowest in Europe, the country is labelled as "not free" byFreedom House,[192] as "repressed" in theIndex of Economic Freedom, and in thePress Freedom Index published byReporters Without Borders, Belarus is ranked 153rd out of 180 countries for 2022.[193] The Belarusian government is also criticized for human rights violations and its persecution of non-governmental organizations, independent journalists, national minorities, and opposition politicians.[190][191] Lukashenko announced a new law in 2014 that will prohibitkolkhoz workers (around 9% of total work force) from leaving their jobs at will—a change of job and living location will require permission from governors. Lukashenko himself compared the law withserfdom.[194][195] Similar regulations were introduced for the forestry industry in 2012.[196] Belarus is the only European country still usingcapital punishment, having carried out executions in 2011.[197]LGBT rights in the country are also ranked among the lowest in Europe.[198] In March 2023, Lukashenko signed a law which allows using capital punishment against officials and soldiers convicted of hightreason.[199]
The judicial system in Belarus lacks independence and is subject to political interference.[200] Corrupt practices such as bribery often took place during tender processes, andwhistleblower protection and nationalombudsman are lacking in Belarus's anti-corruption system.[201]
Rally against Lukashenko in Minsk, 23 August 2020
On 1 September 2020, theOffice of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights declared that its experts received reports of 450 documented cases of torture and ill-treatment of people who were arrested during theprotests following the presidential election. The experts also received reports of violence against women and children, including sexual abuse and rape with rubber batons.[202] At least three detainees suffered injuries indicative of sexual violence inOkrestino prison in Minsk or on the way there. The victims were hospitalized with intramuscular bleeding of the rectum, anal fissure and bleeding, and damage to the mucous membrane of the rectum.[203] In an interview from September 2020 Lukashenko claimed that detainees faked their bruises, saying, "Some of the girls there had their butts painted in blue".[204]
On 23 May 2021, Belarusian authoritiesforcibly diverted a Ryanair flight fromAthens toVilnius in order to detain opposition activist and journalistRoman Protasevich along with his girlfriend; in response, theEuropean Union imposed stricter sanctions on Belarus.[205] In May 2021, Lukashenko threatened that he will flood the European Union with migrants and drugs as a response to the sanctions.[206] In July 2021, Belarusian authorities launched ahybrid warfare byhuman trafficking ofmigrants to the European Union.[207]Lithuanian authorities and top European officialsUrsula von der Leyen,Josep Borrell condemned the usage of migrants as a weapon and suggested that Belarus could be subject to further sanctions.[208] In August 2021, Belarusian officials, wearing uniforms, riot shields and helmets, were recorded on camera near theBelarus–Lithuania border pushing and urging the migrants to cross the European Union border.[209] Following the granting of humanitarian visas to an Olympic athleteKrystsina Tsimanouskaya and her husband,Poland also accused Belarus for organizing a hybrid warfare as the number of migrants crossing theBelarus–Poland border sharply increased multiple times when compared to the 2020 statistics.[210][211] Illegal migrants numbers also exceeded the previous annual numbers inLatvia.[212] On 2 December 2021, theUnited States, European Union,United Kingdom andCanada imposed new sanctions on Belarus.[213]
Belarus is divided into six regions calledoblasts (Belarusian:вобласць;Russian:область), which are named after the cities that serve as their administrative centers:Brest,Gomel,Grodno,Mogilev,Minsk, andVitebsk.[214] Each region has a provincial legislative authority, called a region council (Belarusian:абласны Савет Дэпутатаў; Russian:Областной Совет депутатов), which is elected by its residents, and a provincial executive authority called a region administration (Belarusian:абласны выканаўчы камітэт; Russian:областной исполнительный комитет), whose chairman is appointed by the president.[215] The regions are further subdivided into 118raions, commonly translated as districts (Belarusian:раён; Russian:район).[214] Each raion has its own legislative authority, or raion council, (Belarusian:раённы Савет Дэпутатаў; Russian:районный Совет депутатов) elected by its residents, and an executive authority or raion administration appointed by oblast executive powers.[113] The city of Minsk is split into nine districts and enjoys special status as the nation's capital at the same administration level as the oblasts.[216] It is run by an executive committee and has been granted a charter of self-rule.[217]
Local government
Local government in Belarus is administered by administrative-territorial units (Belarusian:адміністрацыйна-тэрытарыяльныя адзінкі;Russian:административно-территориальные единицы), and occurs on two levels: basic and primary. At the basic level are 118 raions councils and 10 cities of oblast subordination councils, which are supervised by the governments of the oblasts.[218] At the primary level are 14 cities of raion subordination councils, 8urban-type settlements councils, and 1,151 village councils.[219][220] The councils are elected by their residents, and have executive committees appointed by their executive committee chairs. The chairs of executive committees for raions and city of oblast subordinations are appointed by the regional executive committees at the level above; the chairs of executive committees for towns of raion subordination, settlements, and villages are appointed by their councils, but upon the recommendation of the raion executive committees.[218] In either case, the councils have the power to approve or reject a nominee for executive committee chair.
Settlements without their own local council and executive committee are called territorial units (Belarusian:тэрытарыяльныя адзінкі;Russian:территориальные единицы). These territorial units may also be classified as a city of regional or raion subordination, urban-type settlement, or rural settlement, but whose government is administered by the council of another primary or basic unit.[221] In October 1995, apresidential decree abolished the local governments of cities of raion subordination and urban-type settlements which served as theadministrative center of raions, demoting them from administrative-territorial units to territorial units.[222]
As for 2019, the administrative-territorial and territorial units include 115 cities, 85 urban-type settlements, and 23,075 rural settlements.[223]
Change in per capita GDP of Belarus, 1973–2018.[citation needed] Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.Belarus regions by Gross Regional Product (GRP)
Belarus isa developing country, but at 60th place in the United Nations'Human Development Index, it has a "very high" human development.[224] In 2019, the share of manufacturing in GDP was 31%, and over two-thirds of this amount fell on manufacturing industries.[clarification needed] Manufacturing employed 34.7% of the workforce.[225] Manufacturing growth is much smaller than for the economy as a whole—about 2.2% in 2021. Important agricultural products include potatoes and cattle byproducts, including meat.[226]
Trade
Belarus has trade relations with over 180 countries. As of 2007, its main trading partners were Russia, which accounted for about 45% of Belarusian exports and 55% of imports (which include petroleum),[227] and the EU countries, with 25% of exports and 20% of imports.[228][229][needs update]
In April 2022, as a result of its facilitation of theRussian invasion of Ukraine, the EU imposed trade sanctions on Belarus.[230] The sanctions were extended and expanded in August 2023.[231] These sanctions are in addition to those imposed following the rigged 2020 "election" of Lukashenko.[232]
At the time of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Belarus was one of the world's most industrially developed states by proportion of GDP and the richest CIS member-state.[233] In 2015, 39.3% of Belarusians were employed by state-controlled companies, 57.2% by private companies (in which the government has a 21.1% stake) and 3.5% by foreign companies.[234] In 1994, Belarus's main exports included heavy machinery (especiallytractors), agricultural products, and energy products.[235] Economically, Belarus involved itself in theCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS),Eurasian Economic Community, andUnion with Russia.[236] In the 1990s, industrial production plunged due to decreases in imports, investment, and demand for Belarusian products from its trading partners.[237] GDP only began to rise in 1996;[238] the country was the fastest-recovering former Soviet republic in the terms of its economy.[239] In 2006, GDP amounted to US$83.1 billion inpurchasing power parity (PPP) dollars (estimate), or about $8,100 per capita.[226] In 2005, GDP increased by 9.9%; the inflation rate averaged 9.5%.[226] Belarus was ranked 85th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[240]
Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, under Lukashenko's leadership, Belarus has maintained government control of key industries and eschewed the large-scale privatizations seen in other former Soviet republics.[241]
Belarus applied to become a member of theWorld Trade Organization in 1993.[242] Due to its failure to protect labor rights, including passing laws forbidding unemployment or working outside state-controlled sectors,[243] Belarus lost its EUGeneralized System of Preferences status on 21 June 2007, which raised tariff rates to their priormost favored nation levels.[244]
Employment
The labor force consists of more than 4 million people, of whom women are slightly more than men.[234] In 2005, nearly a quarter of the population was employed in industrial factories. Employment is also high in agriculture, manufacturing sales, trading goods, and education. The unemployment rate was 1.5% in 2005, according to government statistics. There were 679,000 unemployed Belarusians, of whom two-thirds were women. The unemployment rate has been declining since 2003, and the overall rate of employment is the highest since statistics were first compiled in 1995.[234]
The currency of Belarus is theBelarusian ruble. The currency was introduced in May 1992 to replace theSoviet ruble and it has undergoneredenomination twice since then. The first coins of the Republic of Belarus were issued on 27 December 1996.[245] The ruble was reintroduced with new values in 2000 and has been in use ever since.[246] In 2007, TheNational Bank of Belarus abandoned pegging the Belarusian ruble to the Russian ruble.[247] As part of theUnion of Russia and Belarus, the two states have discussed using a single currency analogous to the Euro. This led to a proposal that the Belarusian ruble be discontinued in favor of theRussian ruble (RUB), starting as early as 1 January 2008.
On 23 May 2011, the ruble depreciated 56% against the United States dollar. The depreciation was even steeper on the black market and financial collapse seemed imminent as citizens rushed to exchange their rubles for dollars, euros, durable goods, and canned goods.[248] On 1 June 2011, Belarus requested an economic rescue package from theInternational Monetary Fund.[249][250] A new currency, the new Belarusian ruble (ISO 4217 code: BYN)[251] was introduced in July 2016, replacing theBelarusian ruble in a rate of 1:10,000 (10,000 old ruble = 1 new ruble). From 1 July until 31 December 2016, the old and new currencies were in parallel circulation, and series 2000 notes and coins could be exchanged for series 2009 from 1 January 2017 to 31 December 2021.[251] Thisredenomination can be considered an effort to fight the high inflation rate.[252][253] On 6 October 2022, Lukashenko banned price increases, to combat food inflation.[254] In January 2023, Belarus legalizedcopyright infringement ofmedia andintellectual property created by "unfriendly" foreign nations.[255]
The banking system of Belarus consists of two levels: the Central Bank (National Bank of the Republic of Belarus) and 25 commercial banks.[256]
Free economic zones
Belarus has established sixfree economic zones to encourage investment and development. The zones are:[257]
According to the 2019 census the population was 9.41 million[258] with ethnicBelarusians constituting 84.9% of Belarus's total population.[258] Minority groups include:Russians (7.5%),Poles (3.1%), andUkrainians (1.7%).[258]Belarus has a population density of about 50 people per square kilometre (127 per sq mi); 70% of its total population is concentrated in urban areas.[259]Minsk, the nation's capital and largest city, was home to 1,937,900 residents in 2015[update].[260]Gomel, with a population of 481,000, is the second-largest city and serves as the capital of theGomel Region. Other large cities areMogilev (365,100),Vitebsk (342,400),Grodno (314,800) andBrest (298,300).[261]
Like many other Eastern European countries, Belarus has a negative population growth rate and a negative natural growth rate. In 2007, Belarus's population declined by 0.41% and itsfertility rate was 1.22,[262] wellbelow the replacement rate. However, itsnet migration rate is +0.38 per 1,000, indicating that Belarus experiences slightly more immigration than emigration, unlike most neighbouring countries which experience significant negative net migration.As of 2015[update], 69.9% of Belarus's population is aged 14 to 64; 15.5% is under 14, and 14.6% is 65 or older. Its population is also aging; the median age of 30–34 is estimated to rise to between 60 and 64 in 2050.[263] There are about 0.87 males per female in Belarus.[262] The average life expectancy is 72.15 (66.53 years for men and 78.1 years for women).[262] Over 99% of Belarusians aged 15 and older areliterate.[262]
Belarus's Catholic minority is concentrated in the western part of the country, especially aroundGrodno, consisting of a mixture of Belarusians and the country'sPolish andLithuanian minorities.[267] President Lukashenko has stated that Orthodox and Catholic believers are the "two main confessions in our country".[268]
Belarus was once a major center of European Jews, with 10% of the population beingJewish. But since the mid-20th century, the number of Jews has been reduced bythe Holocaust, deportation, and emigration, so that today it is a very small minority of less than one percent.[269] TheLipka Tatars, numbering over 15,000, are predominantlyMuslims. According to Article 16 of theConstitution, Belarus has no official religion. While thefreedom of worship is granted in the same article, religious organizations deemed harmful to the government or social order can be prohibited.[214]
Bilingual Belarusian–Russian sign in Belarusian townRakaw in 2014
Belarus's two official languages are Russian andBelarusian.[270] According to data published by theNational Statistical Committee of the Republic of Belarus, the2009 census recorded that 53% of the population described Belarusian as their "mother tongue" compared to 41% who described Russian in that way. In addition, 70% described Russian and 23% described Belarusian as the "language normally spoken at home".[271] Minorities also speakPolish,Ukrainian andEastern Yiddish.[272] Following the election ofAlexander Lukashenko, most schools in major cities began to teach in Russian rather than Belarusian.[273] The annual circulation of Belarusian-language literature also significantly decreased from 1990 to 2020.[274]
The Belarusian government sponsors annual cultural festivals such as theSlavianski Bazaar in Vitebsk,[275] which showcases Belarusian performers, artists, writers, musicians, and actors. Several state holidays, such asIndependence Day andVictory Day, draw big crowds and often include displays such as fireworks and military parades, especially in Vitebsk and Minsk.[276] The government's Ministry of Culture finances events promoting Belarusian arts and culture both inside and outside the country.
Belarusian literature[277] began with 11th- to 13th-century religious scripture, such as the 12th-century poetry ofCyril of Turaw.[278]
By the 16th century,Polotsk residentFrancysk Skaryna translated the Bible into Belarusian. It was published inPrague andVilnius sometime between 1517 and 1525, making it the first book printed in Belarus or anywhere in Eastern Europe.[279] The modern era of Belarusian literature began in the late 19th century; one prominent writer wasYanka Kupala. Many Belarusian writers of the time, such asUładzimir Žyłka, Kazimir Svayak,Yakub Kolas,Źmitrok Biadula, andMaksim Haretski, wrote forNasha Niva, a Belarusian-language paper published that was previously published in Vilnius but now is published in Minsk.[280]
After Belarus was incorporated into the Soviet Union, the Soviet government took control of the Republic's cultural affairs. At first, a policy of "Belarusianization" was followed in the newly formed Byelorussian SSR. This policy was reversed in the 1930s, and the majority of prominent Belarusian intellectuals and nationalist advocates were either exiled or killed in Stalinist purges.[281] The free development of literature occurred only in Polish-held territory until Soviet occupation in 1939. Several poets and authors went into exile after the Nazi occupation of Belarus and would not return until the 1960s.[279]
The last major revival of Belarusian literature occurred in the 1960s with novels published byVasil Bykaŭ andUladzimir Karatkievich. An influential author who examined the catastrophes the country has suffered wasAles Adamovich. He was named bySvetlana Alexievich, the Belarusian winner of theNobel Prize in Literature 2015, as "her main teacher, who helped her to find a path of her own".[282]
Music in Belarus largely comprises a rich tradition of folk and religious music. The country's folk music traditions can be traced back to the times of theGrand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 19th century, Polish composerStanisław Moniuszko composed operas and chamber music pieces while living in Minsk. During his stay, he worked with Belarusian poetVintsent Dunin-Martsinkyevich and created the operaSialanka (Peasant Woman). At the end of the 19th century, major Belarusian cities formed their own opera and ballet companies. The balletNightingale by M. Kroshner was composed during the Soviet era and became the first Belarusian ballet showcased at the National Academic Vialiki Ballet Theatre in Minsk.[283][better source needed]
After theSecond World War, music focused on the hardships of the Belarusian people or on those who took up arms in defense of the homeland. During this period,Anatoly Bogatyrev, creator of the operaIn Polesye Virgin Forest, served as the "tutor" of Belarusian composers.[284] The National Academic Theatre of Ballet in Minsk was awarded theBenois de la Dance Prize in 1996 as the top ballet company in the world.[284] Rock music has become increasingly popular in recent years, though the Belarusian government has attempted to limit the amount of foreign music aired on the radio in favor of traditional Belarusian music. Since 2004, Belarus has been sending artists to theEurovision Song Contest.[285][286]
Marc Chagall was born in Liozna (nearVitebsk) in 1887. He spent theWorld War I years in Soviet Belarus, becoming one of the country's most distinguished artists and a member of the modernistavant-garde and was a founder of the Vitebsk Arts College.[287][288]
Dress
The traditional Belarusian dress originates from theKievan Rus' period. Due to the cool climate, clothes were designed to conserve body heat and were usually made fromflax orwool. They were decorated with ornate patterns influenced by the neighboring cultures: Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Russians, and other European nations. Each region of Belarus has developed specific design patterns.[289] One ornamental pattern common in early dresses currently decorates the hoist of theBelarusian national flag, adopted in adisputed referendum in 1995.[290]
Belarusian cuisine consists mainly of vegetables, meat (particularly pork), and bread. Foods are usually either slowly cooked orstewed. Typically, Belarusians eat a light breakfast and two hearty meals later in the day.Wheat andrye bread are consumed in Belarus, but rye is more plentiful because conditions are too harsh for growing wheat. To show hospitality, a host traditionally presents an offering ofbread and salt when greeting a guest or visitor.[291]
Belarus is also known for its strong rhythmic gymnasts. Noticeable gymnasts includeInna Zhukova, who earned silver at the2008 Beijing Olympics,Liubov Charkashyna, who earned bronze at the 2012 London Olympics, andMelitina Staniouta, Bronze All-Around Medalist of the 2015 World Championships. The Belarusian senior group earned bronze at the2012 London Olympics.
The state telecom monopoly, Beltelecom, holds the exclusive interconnection with Internet providers outside of Belarus. Beltelecom owns all the backbone channels that linked to the Lattelecom, TEO LT,Tata Communications (formerTeleglobe), Synterra,Rostelecom, Transtelekom and MTS ISPs. Beltelecom is the only operator licensed to provide commercial VoIP services in Belarus.[294]
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