Bektashism (Turkish:Bektaşîlik,Albanian:Bektashi) is aSufi order of Islam that evolved in 13th-century westernAnatolia and became widespread in theOttoman Empire. It is named after thewalī (saint)Haji Bektash Veli, with adherents called Bektashis. Origins of Haji Bektash's teachings can be traced back to the scholarAhmad Yasawi ofTurkestan.[7][8][9][10] Highest title in Bektashi chain of succession is Dedebaba, followed by Halifebaba and Baba.
The Bektashis were originally one of manySufi orders withinSunni Islam. By the 16th century, the order had adopted some tenets ofTwelver Shi'ism—including veneration ofAli, the cousin and son-in-law of theProphetMuhammad, and theTwelve Imams—as well as a variety ofsyncretic beliefs.
The Bektashis acquired political importance in the 15th century when the order dominated theJanissary Corps.[14] After the foundation ofTurkey, the country's leader,Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, banned all Islamic orders to install theDirectorate of Religious Affairs as sole governing entity over religion, and the community's headquarters relocated toAlbania.Salih Nijazi was the last Dedebaba in Turkey and the first in Albania. The order became involved in Albanian politics, and some of its members, includingIsmail Qemali, were major leaders of theAlbanian National Awakening.
According to a 2005 estimate byReshat Bardhi, there are over seven million Bektashis worldwide, though more recent studies put the figure as high as 20 million.[17] InAlbania, they make up 9% of the Muslim population and 5% of the country's population.[18] An additional 12.5 million Bektashis live inTurkey.[19] Bektashis are mainly found throughoutAnatolia, theBalkans and among Ottoman-eraGreek Muslim communities.[20] The termAlevi–Bektashi is used frequently in current Turkish religious discourse as an umbrella term forAlevism and Bektashism, despite their distinct origins and separate belief systems.[21] Alevi/Bektashi is officially recognized throughMinistry of Culture and Tourism under the 'Presidency of Alevi/Bektashi Culture'.[2]
Bektashism originated inAnatolia as the followers of the 13th-century scholar Bektash,[22] who himself studied under themysticAhmad Yasawi, who was born inSayram, now in southernKazakhstan.[23] The doctrines and rituals of the Bektashis were codified by the mysticBalım Sultan, who is considered thepīr-i thānī (“the Second Elder”) by Bektashis.[22]
It was originally founded as a Sufi movement.[24][25] The branch became widespread in theOttoman Empire, with its lodges scattered throughout Anatolia and theBalkans. It became the official order of theJanissaries, the elite infantry corps of theOttoman military.[26] Therefore, they also became mainly associated with Anatolian and Balkan Muslims ofEastern Orthodox convert origin, mainlyAlbanians and northernGreeks (although most leading Bektashibabas were of southern Albanian origin).[27][failed verification] In 1826, the Bektashi order was banned throughout the Ottoman Empire bySultanMahmud II for having close ties with theJanissary corps.[26] Many Bektashi dervishes were exiled, and some were executed,[26] whiletekkes were destroyed and their revenues were confiscated.[26] This decision was supported by the Sunni religious elite and the leaders of other, more orthodox, Sufi orders. Bektashis slowly regained freedom with the coming of theTanzimat. After the foundation of the Turkish Republic,Mustafa Kemal Atatürk shut down the lodges in 1925. Consequently, the Bektashi leadership moved to Albania and established their headquarters inTirana. Among the most famous followers of Bektashi in the 19th-century Balkans wereAli Pasha of Yanina[28][29][30][31][32][33] andNaim Frashëri.
After the lodges in Turkey were shut down, the order's headquarters moved toAlbania.[34] On 20 March 1930,Salih Nijazi was elected as theDedebaba of the Bektashi community in Albania. Before Nijazi, the Dedebaba was Haxhi Fejzullah in Turkey.[35] Njazi established theBektashi World Headquarters inTirana.[34] Its construction was finished in 1941 during theItalian occupation of Albania.[34] Nijazi promoted Bektashi Islam by introducing major ceremonies at popular tekkes.[34] After he was murdered, Ali Riza succeeded him as the Dedebaba.[34]
Despite the negative effect of the ban on lodges on Bektashi culture, most modern Bektashis in Turkey have been generally supportive ofsecularism, since these reforms have relatively relaxed the religious intolerance that had historically been shown against them by the official Sunni establishment.
In the Balkans, the Bektashi Order had a considerable influence on the Islamization of many areas, primarily Albania andBulgaria, as well as parts ofMacedonia, particularly among Ottoman-eraGreek Muslims from western Greek Macedonia such as theVallahades. By the 18th century, Bektashism began to gain a considerable hold over southern Albania and northwestern Greece (Epirus and western Greek Macedonia). Following the ban on Sufi orders in theRepublic of Turkey, the Bektashi community's headquarters was moved fromHacıbektaş in central Anatolia, to Tirana, Albania. In Albania, the Bektashi community declared its separation from the Sunni community and they have since perceived as a distinct Islamic sect rather than a branch of Sunni Islam.
Bektashism continued to flourish until theSecond World War. After thecommunists took power in 1945, severalbabas and dervishes were executed and a gradual constriction of Bektashi influence began. Ultimately, in 1967 alltekkes were shut down whenEnver Hoxha banned all religious practice. When the ban was rescinded in 1990, the Bektashism reestablished itself, although there were few left with any real knowledge of the spiritual path. Nevertheless, manytekkes (lodges) operate today in Albania. The most recent head of the order in Albania wasHajjiReshat BardhiDedebaba (1935–2011) and the maintekke has been reopened in Tirana. In June 2011,BabaEdmond Brahimaj was chosen as the head of the Bektashi Order by a council of Albanianbabas. Today, sympathy for the Order is generally widespread in Albania where approximately 20% of Muslims self-report as having some connection to Bektashism.
There are also important Bektashi communities among the Albanian communities ofNorth Macedonia andKosovo, the most important being theArabati Baba Teḱe in the city ofTetovo, which was until recently under the guidance ofBaba Tahir Emini (1941–2006). Following the death ofBaba Tahir Emini, thededelik of Tirana appointedBaba Edmond Brahimaj (known asBaba Mondi), formerly head of the Turan Tekke ofKorçë, to oversee theHarabati baba tekke. A splinter branch of the order has recently sprung up in the town ofKičevo which has ties to the Turkish Bektashi community under Haydar Ercan Dede rather than Tirana. A smaller Bektashitekke, the Dikmen Baba Tekkesi, is in operation in the Turkish-speaking town ofKanatlarci,North Macedonia that also has stronger ties with Turkish Bektashis. InKosovo, the relatively small Bektashi community has atekke in the town ofGjakovë and is under the leadership ofBaba Mumin Lama and it recognizes the leadership of Tirana.
InBulgaria, thetürbes of Kıdlemi Baba, Ak Yazılı Baba,Demir Baba, andOtman Baba function as heterodox Islamic pilgrimage sites, and before 1842 were the centers of Bektashitekkes.[36] Bektashis continue to be active in Turkey and their semi-clandestine organizations can be found in Istanbul,Ankara andİzmir. There are currently two rival claimants to the Dedebabate in Turkey: Mustafa Eke and Haydar Ercan. A large, functioning Bektashitekke was established in theUnited States in 1954 byBaba Rexheb in theDetroit suburb ofTaylor,and the tomb (türbe) of Baba Rexheb continues to draw pilgrims of all faiths.
In 2002, a group of armed members of theIslamic Religious Community of Macedonia (ICM), aSunni group that is the legally recognized organisation which claims to represent allMuslims inNorth Macedonia, invaded the Bektashi order'sArabati Baba Teḱe in an attempt to reclaim thistekke as amosque although the facility has never functioned as such. Subsequently, the Bektashi Order of North Macedonia sued the government for failing to restore thetekke to the Bektashis, pursuant to a law passed in the early 1990s returning properties previously nationalized under theYugoslav government. The law, however, deals with restitution to private citizens, rather than religious communities.[37]
The ICM claim to thetekke is based upon their contention to represent all Muslims in North Macedonia; and indeed, they are one of two Muslim organizations recognized by the government, both Sunni. The Bektashi community filed for recognition as a separate religious community with the Macedonian government in 1993, which has refused to recognize them.[37]
Bektashis follow the teachings of Haji Bektash, who preached about the Twelve Imams. Bektashis differ from other Muslims by also following the Fourteen Innocents, who either died in infancy or were martyred with Husayn.[41]Abbas ibn Ali is also an important figure in Bektashism, and Bektashis visit MountTomorr to honor him in an annual pilgrimage to theAbbas Ali Türbe on August 20–25.[42]
In addition to the Muslimfive daily prayers, Bektashis have two specific prayers, one at dawn and another at dusk for the welfare of all humanity.[39] Bektashism places much emphasis on the concept ofWahdat al-Wujud (Arabic:وحدة الوجود,romanized: Unity of Being) that was formulated byIbn Arabi.
Malakat is an important Bektashi text, perhaps written by Haji Bektash.[43] Some scholars question whether the Malakat was actually authored by Haji Bektash. Resultingly, those scholars question whether the presentation of Haji Bektash and Bektashism as orthoprax in Islam (practicing orthodox Islam). There remains dispute as to whether Bektashis have historically followed the shariah law of Islam. For example, they are known to use both wine and raki in their ceremonial meetings, and were not known, in earlier times, to have observed the fast of Ramadan or the obligation of five daily prayer times. (ref: "Conforming Haji Bektash: A Saint and His Followers between Orthopraxy and Heteropraxy"; Mark Soileau, Die Welt des Islams 54 (2014) 423-459)
Bektashis follow the modern-day Bektashi Dedebabate, currently headed byBaba Mondi. Bektashis consider theDedebaba as leader over the entire branch.
Bektashism is also heavily permeated with Shiite concepts, such as the marked reverence of Ali, the Twelve Imams, and the ritual commemoration ofAshura marking theBattle of Karbala. The oldPersian holiday ofNowruz is celebrated by Bektashis as Ali's birthday (see alsoNevruz in Albania).
The Bektashi order is a Sufi order and shares much in common with other Islamic mystical movements, such as the need for an experienced spiritual guide—called ababa in Bektashi parlance — as well as the Sufi doctrine of "the four gates that must be traversed":Sharī'a (religious law),Ṭarīqa (the spiritual path),Ma'rifa (true knowledge), andḤaqīqa (truth).
There are many other practices and ceremonies that share similarities with other faiths, such as a ritual meal (muhabbet) and yearly confession of sins to ababa (magfirat-i zunub مغفرة الذنوب). Bektashis base their practices and rituals on their non-orthodox andmystical interpretation and understanding of theQuran and the prophetic practice (Sunnah). They have no written doctrine specific to them, so rules and rituals may vary from onebaba to another. Bektashis generally revere non-Bektashi Sufi mystics, such asibn Arabi,al-Ghazali andRumi, who are close to Bektashism in spirit though many are from more mainstream Islamic backgrounds.
Like other Muslims, Bektashis consider porkharam (prohibited) and do not consume it, though, unlike other Muslims, they also avoid eating rabbit.[44][45]Rakia, afruit brandy, is used sacramentally in Bektashism,[46] where it is not considered alcoholic and is referred to asDem.[47]
Poetry plays an important role in the transmission of Bektashi spirituality. Several important Ottoman-era poets were Bektashis, andYunus Emre, the most acclaimed poet of theTurkish language, is generally recognized as a subscriber to the Bektashi order.
The Bektashis were quite lax in observing daily Muslim laws, and women as well as men took part in ritual wine drinking and dancing during devotional ceremonies. The Bektashis in the Balkans adapted such Christian practices as the ritual sharing of bread and the confession of sins. Bektashi mystical writings made a rich contribution to Sufi poetry.[48]
A poem from Bektashi poetBalım Sultan (died c. 1517/1519):
İstivayı özler gözüm,(My eye seeks out repose,)
Seb'al-mesânîdir yüzüm,(my face is the 'oft repeated seven (i.e. theSuraAl-Fatiha),)
Like most other Sufi orders, Bektashism isinitiatic, and members must traverse various levels or ranks as they progress along the spiritual path to theReality. The Turkish names are given below, followed by their Arabic and Albanian equivalents.[50]
First-level members are calledaşıks عاشق (Albanian:ashik). They are those who, while not having taken initiation into the order, are nevertheless drawn to it.
Following initiation (callednasip), one becomes amühip محب (Albanian:muhib).
After some time as amühip, one can take further vows and become adervish.
The next level above dervish is that ofbaba. Thebaba (lit. father) (Albanian:atë) is considered to be the head of atekke and qualified to give spiritual guidance (irshad إرشاد).
Above thebaba (Albanian:gjysh) is the rank ofhalife-baba (ordede, grandfather).
Thededebaba (Albanian:kryegjysh) is traditionally considered to be the highest ranking authority in the Bektashi order. Traditionally the residence of thededebaba was the Pir Evi (The Saint's Home) which was located in the shrine ofHajji Bektash Wali in the central Anatolian town ofHacıbektaş (aka Solucakarahüyük), known as theHajibektash complex.
Traditionally there were twelve of these hierarchical rankings, the most senior being thededebaba (great-grandfather).
TheWorld Bektashi Congress, also called the National Congress of the Bektashi, a conference during which members of the Bektashi Community make important decisions, has been held in Albania several times. Since 1945, it has been held exclusively inTirana. The longest gap between two congresses lasted from 1950 to 1993, when congresses could not be held duringCommunist rule in Albania. A list of congresses is given below.[50][53]
^Korkmaz, Seyfullah (2001)."Ahmed Yesevî ve Hacı Bektaş Veli".Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi (in Turkish).1 (11):325–355. Retrieved20 August 2025.
^Köprülü, Mehmed Fuad (2006) [1918].Early Mystics in Turkish Literature. Translated by Gary Leiser and Robert Dankoff. London; New York: Routledge.doi:10.4324/9780203019580.ISBN978-0-415-36638-0.
^Ayhan Kaya (2016) The Alevi-Bektashi order in Turkey: syncreticism transcending national borders, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 16:2, 275–294, DOI: 10.1080/14683857.2015.1120465
^Miranda Vickers (1999),The Albanians: A Modern History, London: I.B. Tauris, p. 22,ISBN9781441645005,archived from the original on 19 May 2016, retrieved20 October 2015,Around that time, Ali was converted to Bektashism by Baba Shemin of Kruja...
^Robert Elsie (2004),Historical Dictionary of Albania, European historical dictionaries, Scarecrow Press, p. 40,ISBN9780810848726,OCLC52347600,archived from the original on 28 April 2016, retrieved20 October 2015,Most of the Southern Albania and Epirus converted to Bektashism, initially under the influence of Ali Pasha Tepelena, "the Lion of Janina", who was himself a follower of the order.
^Stavro Skendi (1980),Balkan Cultural Studies, East European monographs, Boulder, p. 161,ISBN9780914710660,OCLC7058414,archived from the original on 2 May 2016, retrieved12 November 2015,The great expandion of Bektashism in southern Albania took place during the time of Ali Pasha Tepelena, who is believed to have been a Bektashi himself
^Algar, Hamid.The Hurufi Influence on Bektashism: Bektachiyya, Estudés sur l'ordre mystique des Bektachis et les groupes relevant de Hadji Bektach. Istanbul: Les Éditions Isis. pp. 39–53.
Doja, Albert. 2006. "A political history of Bektashism from Ottoman Anatolia to Contemporary Turkey." Journal of Church and State 48 (2): 421–450.doi=10.1093/jcs/48.2.423.
Muhammed Seyfeddin Ibn Zulfikari Derviş Ali; Bektaşi İkrar Ayini, Kalan Publishing, Translated from Ottoman Turkish by Mahir Ünsal Eriş, Ankara, 2007Turkish
Saggau, Emil BH. "Marginalised Islam: Christianity's role in the Sufi order of Bektashism." InExploring the Multitude of Muslims in Europe, pp. 183–197. Brill, 2018.
Soileau, Mark (2014). "Conforming Haji Bektash: A Saint and His Followers between Orthopraxy and Heteropraxy." Die Welt des Islams 54, pp. 423-459
Yürekli, Zeynep (2012).Architecture and hagiography in the Ottoman Empire : the politics of Bektashi shrines in the classical age. Farnham, Surrey Burlington, VT: Ashgate.ISBN978-1-4094-1106-2.OCLC776031990.
Frashëri, Naim Bey.Fletore e Bektashinjet. Bucharest: Shtypëshkronjët të Shqipëtarëvet, 1896; Reprint: Salonica: Mbrothësia, 1909. 32 pp.
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