TheGreekshellenised the name asBērytós (Ancient Greek:Βηρυτός), which theRomanslatinised asBerytus.[a] When it attained the status of aRoman colony, it was notionally refounded and its official name was emended toColonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus to include its imperial sponsors.
At the time of thecrusades, the city was known in French asBarut orBaruth.
The earliest settlement of Beirut was on an island in the Beirut River, but the channel that separated it from the banks silted up and the island ceased to be. Excavations in the downtown area have unearthed layers of Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader,Persian andOttoman remains.[19]
Canaanean blade. Suggested to be part of ajavelin. Fresh greyflint, both sides showingpressure flaking. Somewhat narrower at the base, suggesting ahaft. Polished at the extreme point. Found on land of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in thePatriarchate area of Beirut
Beirut was settled over 5,000 years ago,[20] and there is evidence that the surrounding area had already been inhabited for tens of thousands of years prior to this. Severalprehistoric archaeological sites have been discovered within the urban area of Beirut, revealingflint tools from sequential periods dating from theMiddle Palaeolithic andUpper Paleolithic through theNeolithic to theBronze Age.
BeirutII (Umm el-Khatib) was suggested by Burkhalter to have been south of Tarik el Jedideh, where P.E. Gigues discovered aCopper Age flint industry at around 100 metres (328 feet)above sea level. The site had been built on and destroyed by 1948.[24]
BeirutIII (Furn esh-Shebbak), listed asPlateau Tabet, was suggested to have been located on the left bank of theBeirut River. Burkhalter suggested that it was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticized byLorraine Copeland.[24] P. E. Gigues discovered a series ofNeolithicflint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be ahut circle.Auguste Bergy discussed polishedaxes that were also found at this site, which has now completely disappeared as a result of construction and urbanization of the area.[25]
BeirutIV (Furn esh-Shebbak, river banks) was also on the left bank of the river and on either side of the road leading eastwards from the Furn esh Shebbak police station towards the river that marked the city limits. The area was covered in redsand that representedQuaternaryriver terraces. The site was found byJesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen,[23]Raoul Describes[26] and Auguste Bergy.[25] Collections from the site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit,Paul Bovier-Lapierre. ManyMiddle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in sidegullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 variedbifaces accredited to theAcheulean period, some with alustrous sheen, now held at theMuseum of Lebanese Prehistory.Henri Fleisch also found anEmireh point amongst material from the site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings.
BeirutV (Nahr Beirut,Beirut River) was discovered by Dillenseger and said to be in anorchard ofmulberry trees on the left bank of the river, near theriver mouth, and to be close to the railway station and bridge toTripoli.Levallois flints and bones and similar surface material were found amongstbrecciated deposits.[27] The area has now been built on.[28]
BeirutVI (Patriarchate) was a site discovered while building on the property of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. It was notable for the discovery of a finely styledCanaanean bladejavelin suggested to date to the early or middle Neolithic periods ofByblos and which is held in the school library.[24]
BeirutVII, the Rivoli Cinema and Byblos Cinema sites near the Bourj in the Rue el Arz area, are two sites discovered by Lorraine Copeland,Peter Wescombe, and Marina Hayek in 1964 and examined byDiana Kirkbride and Roger Saidah. One site was behind the parking lot of the Byblos Cinema and showed collapsed walls, pits, floors, charcoal, pottery and flints. The other, overlooking a cliff west of the Rivoli Cinema, was composed of three layers resting onlimestone bedrock. Fragments of blades and broad flakes were recovered from the first layer of black soil, above which some Bronze Age pottery was recovered in a layer of grey soil. Pieces ofRoman pottery andmosaics were found in the upper layer.[24] Middle Bronze Age tombs were found in this area, and the ancienttell of Beirut is thought to be in the Bourj area.[29]
ThePhoenician port of Beirut was located between Rue Foch and Rue Allenby on the north coast. The port orharbour was excavated and reported on several years ago and now lies buried under the city.[30] Another suggested port or dry dock was claimed to have been discovered around 1 kilometre (0.62 miles) to the west in 2011 by a team of Lebanesearchaeologists from theDirectorate General of Antiquities ofLebanese University. Controversy arose on 26 June 2012 when authorization was given by LebaneseMinister of CultureGaby Layoun for a private company called Venus Towers Real Estate Development Company to destroy the ruins (archaeological site BEY194) in the $500 million construction project of three skyscrapers and a garden behind Hotel Monroe in downtown Beirut. Two later reports by an international committee of archaeologists appointed by Layoun, including Hanz Curver, and an expert report by Ralph Pederson, a member of the institute of Nautical Archaeology and now teaching inMarburg, Germany, dismissed the claims that the trenches were a port, on various criteria. The exact function of site BEY194 may never be known, and the issue raised heated emotions and led to increased coverage on the subject of Lebanese heritage in the press.[31][32][33]
In 140BC, the Phoenician city was destroyed byDiodotus Tryphon during his conflict withAntiochus VII Sidetes for the throne of theHellenisticSeleucid monarchy. Laodicea in Phoenicia was built upon the same site on a more conventional Hellenistic plan. Present-day Beirut overlies this ancient one, and little archaeology was carried out until after thecivil war in 1991. The salvage excavations after 1993 have yielded new insights into the layout and history of this period of Beirut's history. Public architecture included several areas and buildings.[34]
Mid-1st-century coins from Berytus bear the head ofTyche, goddess of fortune;[35] on the reverse, the city's symbol appears: a dolphin entwines ananchor. This symbol was later taken up by the early printerAldus Manutius in 15th centuryVenice. After a state of civil war and decline the Seleucid Empire faced, KingTigranes the Great of theKingdom of Armenia conquered Beirut and placed it under effective Armenian control. However, after theBattle of Tigranocerta, Armenia forever lost their holdings in Syria and Beirut was conquered by Roman generalPompey.
Laodicea was conquered byPompey in 64 BC and the name Berytus was restored to it. The city was assimilated into theRoman Empire, soldiers were sent there, and large building projects were undertaken.[36][37][38] From the 1st century BC, theBekaa Valley served as a source of grain for theRoman provinces of theLevant and even forRome itself. UnderClaudius, Berytus expanded to reach theBekaa Valley and includeHeliopolis (Baalbek). The city was settled by Roman colonists who promoted agriculture in the region.
Berytus'slaw school was widely known;[41] two of Rome's most famous jurists,Papinian andUlpian, were natives ofPhoenicia and taught there under theSeveran emperors. Ecclesiastical historianSozomen studied at the law school in Beirut between 400 and 402.[42] WhenJustinian assembled hisPandects in the 6th century, a large part of the corpus of laws was derived from these two jurists, and in AD533 Justinian recognised the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire.
In 551, amajor earthquake struck Berytus,[13][36][43] causing widespread damage. The earthquake reduced cities along the coast to ruins and killed many, 30,000 in Berytus alone by some measurements.[44] As a result, the students of the law school were transferred toSidon.[45]
Under theOttoman sultanSelim I (1512–1520), the Ottomans conqueredSyria including present-dayLebanon. Beirut was controlled by localDruze emirs throughout the Ottoman period.[48] One of them,Fakhr-al-Din II, fortified it early in the 17th century, but the Ottomans reclaimed it in 1763.[49] With the help ofDamascus, Beirut successfully broke Acre's monopoly on Syrian maritime trade and for a few years supplanted it as the main trading center in the region. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion against Ottoman hegemony in Acre underJezzar Pasha andAbdullah Pasha, Beirut declined to a small town with a population of about 10,000 and was an object of contention between the Ottomans, the local Druze, and theMamluks. AfterIbrahim Pasha of Egypt captured Acre in 1832,[50] Beirut began its revival.
After the Albanian fighterTafil Buzi was interned and then pardoned by the Ottoman administration for his constant uprisings, he raised 3,000Albanian mercenaries to fight in Lebanon; some of them became notorious shortly afterwards for having been responsible for the widespread disorders in Beirut.[51]
By the second half of the nineteenth century, Beirut was developing close commercial and political ties with European imperial powers, particularly France. European interests in Lebanese silk and other export products transformed the city into a major port and commercial center.[52] This boom in cross-regional trade allowed certain groups, such as theSursock family, to establish trade and manufacturing empires that further strengthened Beirut's position as a key partner in the interests of imperial dynasties. Meanwhile, Ottoman power in the region continued to decline. Sectarian and religious conflicts, power vacuums, and changes in the political dynamics of the region culminated in the1860 Lebanon conflict. Beirut became a destination forMaronite Christian refugees fleeing from the worst areas of the fighting onMount Lebanon and in Damascus.[53] This in turn altered the religious composition of Beirut itself, sowing the seeds of future sectarian and religious troubles there and in greater Lebanon. However, Beirut was able to prosper in the meantime. This was again a product of European intervention, and also a general realization amongst the city's residents that commerce, trade, and prosperity depended on domestic stability.[54] After petitions by the local bourgeois, the governor ofSyria VilayetMehmed Rashid Pasha authorized the establishment of the Beirut Municipal Council,[55] the first municipality established in the Arab provinces of the Empire.[56] The council was elected by an assembly of city notables and played an instrumental role governing the city through the following decades.[55]
In 1888, Beirut was made capital of avilayet (governorate) in Syria,[57] including thesanjaks (prefectures) Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Bekaa.[58] By this time, Beirut had grown into a cosmopolitan city and had close links withEurope and the United States. It also became a centre ofmissionary activity that spawned educational institutions such as theAmerican University of Beirut. Provided with water from a British company and gas from a French one, silk exports to Europe came to dominate the local economy. After French engineers established a modern harbour in 1894 and a rail link across Lebanon toDamascus andAleppo in 1907, much of the trade was carried by French ships toMarseille. French influence in the area soon exceeded that of any other European power. Though French infrastructure investments in the region were supportive, the local merchant elites were able to independently maintain economic power even after the end of the First World War.[59] In contrast, although Beirut was not the only city to receive French attention in this time, it was able to leverage its critical position to its advantage over others (e.g. Damascus).[59] The 1911Encyclopædia Britannica reported a population consisting of 36,000 Muslims, 77,000 Christians, 2,500 Jews, 400 Druze and 4,100 foreigners.[49] At the start of the 20th century,Salim Ali Salam was one of the most prominent figures in Beirut, holding numerous public positions including deputy from Beirut to the Ottoman parliament and President of the Municipality of Beirut. Given his modern way of life, the emergence of Salim Ali Salam as a public figure constituted a transformation in terms of the social development of the city.
An aerialpanoramic view of Beirut in the last third of the 19th century
In his 2003 book entitledBeirut and its Seven Families, Yussef Bin Ahmad Bin Ali Al Husseini says:
The seven families of Beirut are the families who bonded among each other and made the famous historical agreement with the governor of the Syrian Coast in 1351 to protect and defend the city of Beirut and its shores, and chase the invaders and stop their progress towards it.
AfterWorld War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Beirut, along with the rest of Lebanon, was placed under theFrench Mandate. Lebanon achieved independence in 1943, and Beirut became the capital city. The city remained a regional intellectual capital, becoming a major tourist destination and a banking haven,[60][61] especially for thePersian Gulf oil boom.
Beirut International Airport was opened on 23 April 1954. It was renamed Rafic Hariri International Airport in 2005 following his assassination. Beirut serves its sole commercial airport as Lebanon's main gateway for flights.
This era of relative prosperity ended in 1975 when theLebanese Civil War broke out throughout the country.[62][63] During most of the war, Beirut was divided between the Muslim west part and the Christian east.[citation needed] The downtown area, previously the home of much of the city's commercial and cultural activity, became ano man's land known as theGreen Line. Many inhabitants fled to other countries. About 60,000 people died in the first two years of the war (1975–1976), and much of the city was devastated. A particularly destructive period was the 1978 Syrian siege ofAchrafiyeh, the main Christian district of Beirut. Syrian troops relentlessly shelled the eastern quarter of the city,[64] but Christian militias defeated multiple attempts by Syria's elite forces to capture the strategic area in a three-month campaign later known as theHundred Days' War.
Another destructive chapter was the1982 Lebanon War, during which most ofWest Beirut was under siege by Israeli troops. In 1983, French and USbarracks were bombed, killing 241 American servicemen, 58 French servicemen, six civilians and the two suicide bombers.[65][66][67]
Since the end of the war in 1990, the people of Lebanon have been rebuilding Beirut, whose urban agglomeration was mainly constituted during war time through an anarchic urban development[68] stretching along the littoral corridor and its nearby heights. By the start of the2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the city had somewhat regained its status as a tourist, cultural and intellectual centre in the Middle East and as a center for commerce, fashion, and media. The reconstruction of downtown Beirut has been largely driven bySolidere, a development company established in 1994 by Prime MinisterRafic Hariri. The city has hosted both the Asian Club Basketball Championship and the Asian Football Cup, and has hosted theMiss Europe pageant nine times: 1960–1964, 1999, 2001–2002, and 2016.
Rafic Hariri was assassinated in 2005 near theSaint George Hotel in Beirut.[69][70] A month later about one million people gathered for anopposition rally in Beirut.[71][72] TheCedar Revolution was the largest rally in Lebanon's history at that time.[73] The last Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut on 26 April 2005,[74] and the two countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 2008.[75]
Street of Beirut Central District, 2023
During the 2006 Lebanon War, Israeli bombardment caused damage in many parts of Beirut, especially the predominantlyShiite southern suburbs of Beirut. On 12 July 2006, the"Operation Truthful Promise" carried out byHezbollah ended with 8 Israeli deaths and 6 injuries. In response, the IDF targeted Hezbollah's main media outlets. There were then artillery raids against targets in southern Lebanon, and the Israeli cabinet held Beirut responsible for the attacks. Then on 13 July 2006Israel began implementing a naval and air blockade over Lebanon; during this blockade Israel bombed the runways atBeirut International Airport and the major Beirut-Damascus highway in Eastern Lebanon.[76]
In May 2008, after the government decided to disband Hezbollah's communications network (a decision it later rescinded),violent clashes broke out briefly between government allies and opposition forces, before control of the city was handed over to theLebanese Army.[77] After this a national dialogue conference was held inDoha at the invitation of the Prince of Qatar. The conference agreed to appoint a new president of Lebanon and to establish a new national government involving all the political adversaries. As a result of theDoha Agreement, the opposition's barricades were dismantled and so were the opposition's protest camps inMartyrs' Square.[78] On 19 October 2012, a car bomb killed eight people in the Beirut's neighborhood ofAchrafiyeh, including Brigadier GeneralWissam al-Hassan, chief of the Intelligence Bureau of theInternal Security Forces. In addition,78 others were wounded in the bombing.[79] It was the largest attack in the capital since 2008.[80] On 27 December 2013, acar bomb exploded in theCentral District killing at least five people, including the former Lebanese ambassador to the U.S.Mohamad Chatah, and wounding 71 others.[81]
On 4 August 2020,a massive explosion in the Port of Beirut resulted in the death of at least 203 people (with an additional three missing)[84] and the wounding of more than 6,500. Foreigners from at least 22 countries were among the casualties. Furthermore, at least 108Bangladeshis were injured in the blasts, making them the most affected foreign community. The cause of the blast is believed to be from government-confiscated and storedammonium nitrate.[85] As many as 300,000 people have been left homeless by the explosion.[86] Protesters in Lebanon called on the government on 8 August 2020 for the end of the alleged negligence that resulted in the 4 August explosion.[87] On 10 August 2020, as a result of the protests, Prime MinisterHassan Diab announced his resignation.[88] Weeks later, a huge fire erupted in an oil and tyre warehouse in the port's duty-free zone, on 10 September 2020.[89]
Pigeon Rock (Raouché)Beirut from the International Space Station
Beirut sits on a peninsula extending westward into theMediterranean Sea.[90] It is flanked by theLebanon Mountains and has taken on a triangular shape, largely influenced by its situation between and atop two hills: Al-Ashrafieh and Al-Musaytibah. The Beirut Governorate occupies 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi), and the city'smetropolitan area 67 square kilometres (26 sq mi).[90] The coast is rather diverse, with rocky beaches, sandy shores and cliffs situated beside one another.
Beirut has ahot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen:Csa, bordering onAs,Trewartha:Csal) characterized by mild days and nights, as its coastal location allows temperatures to bemoderated by the sea. Autumn and spring are warm, but short. Winter is mild and rainy;frost has never been recorded. Summer is prolonged, hot and humid. The prevailing wind during the afternoon and evening is from the west (onshore, blowing in from the Mediterranean); at night it reverses to offshore, blowing from the land out to sea.
The average annual rainfall is 825 millimetres (32.5 in), with the large majority of it falling from October to April. Much of the autumn and spring rain falls in heavy downpours on a limited number of days, but in winter it is spread more evenly over many days. Summer receives very little rainfall, if any. Snow is rare, except in the mountainous eastern suburbs, where snowfall occurs due to the region's high altitudes.Hail (which can often be heavy) occurs a few times per year, mostly during winter.
Lebanon, especially Beirut and its suburbs, suffered a massive garbage crisis, mainly from July 2015 up to March 2016. The issue began when authorities shut down the main landfill site originally used for Beirut's garbage south-east of the city and failed to provide any alternative solutions for months. As a result, garbage mounted in the streets in Greater Beirut and caused protests to erupt, which sometimes invoked police action. This problem was commonly blamed on the country's political situation. This garbage crisis birthed a movement called "You Stink" which was directed at the country's politicians. In March 2016, the government came up with a so-called temporary solution to establish two new landfills East and South of the city to store the garbage, while several municipalities across the country, in an unprecedented move, began recycling and managing waste more efficiently, building waste-management facilities and relying on themselves rather than the central government. Moreover, Beirut has a lack of green areas with just two main public gardens (sanayeh and horch Beirut). In fact, concrete roofs cover 80% of the capital area.[94]
Two of the twelve officialPalestinian refugee camps in Lebanon are located in the southern suburbs of Beirut: Bourj el-Barajneh andShatila. There is also one within its municipal boundaries:Mar Elias.[97]
Southern suburban districts include Chiyah,Ghobeiry (Bir Hassan, Jnah and Ouzai are part of the Ghobeiry municipality), Haret Hreik, Burj al Barajneh, Laylake-Mreijeh, Hay al Sillum and Hadath. Eastern suburbs include Burj Hammoud, Sin el Fil, Dekwane and Mkalles. Hazmiyeh is also considered as an eastern suburb with its close proximity to the capital.[97] Of the 15 unregistered or unofficial refugee camps, Sabra, which lies adjacent to Shatila, is also located in southern Beirut[98] and was the scene ofa massacre during the civil war.[99]
People in Lebanon often use different names for the same geographic locations, and few people rely on official, government-provided street numbers. Instead, historic and commercial landmarks are more commonly used.[100]
No populationcensus has been taken in Lebanon since 1932,[101] but estimates of Beirut's population range from as low as 938,940[102] through 1,303,129[103] to as high as 2,200,000 as part ofGreater Beirut.[104][105]
Beirut is one of the mostcosmopolitan and religiously diverse cities of Lebanon and all of the Middle East.[107] Before the civil war the neighborhoods of Beirut were fairly heterogeneous, but they became largely segregated by religion since the conflict.[108] East Beirut has a mainly Christian population with a small Muslim minority, whilst West Beirut has a Sunni Muslim majority with small minorities of Shia, Christians and Druze.[citation needed] Since the end of the civil war, East and West Beirut have begun to see an increase in Muslims and Christians moving into each half. Christians comprise 35% of Beirut's population, Muslims 63%, Druze 1%, and others 1%.[citation needed]
Family matters such as marriage, divorce and inheritance are still handled by the religious authorities representing a person's faith (the Ottoman "millet" system). Calls forcivil marriage are unanimously rejected by the religious authorities, but civil marriages held in another country are recognized by Lebanesecivil authorities.
Lebanon does not hold acensus survey; researchers at theAmerican University of Beirut have found thattrilingualism - betweenLebanese Arabic,French andEnglish - is common and normal among Beirut residents.[109] The use of all three languages crosses between the city's different sects and geography, and are a common occurrence in both the more cosmopolitan and the more conservative neighborhoods.[109] The research found that French or English is disproportionately heard nearby Francophone or Anglophone, respectively, educational institutions. Some minorities in Beirut also speakArmenian,Aramaic, andAmharic.[109]
The Beirut Central District (BCD) orCentre Ville is the name given to Beirut's historical and geographical core by "Solidere", the "vibrant financial, commercial, and administrative hub of the country".[110] It is an area thousands of years old, traditionally a focus of business, finance, culture and leisure. Its reconstruction constitutes one of the most ambitious contemporary urban developments.[111] Due to the devastation incurred on the city center from theLebanese Civil War, the Beirut Central District underwent a thorough reconstruction and development plan that gave it back its cultural and economic position in the region. Ever since,Beirut Central District has evolved into an integrated business and commercial environment and the focus of the financial activity in the region. That evolution was accompanied with the relocation of international organizations, reoccupation of civic and government buildings, expansion of financial activities, and establishment of regional headquarters and global firms in the city center.[112]
Roman baths park in Downtown Beirut
Assessment of the demand for build-up space in the BCD has been done in reference to a number of macro-economic, demographic, and urban planning considerations at a time of marked need for new activity poles in the city, such as Souks, financial, cultural and recreational centers.[113] The district's total area is 4,690,000 square metres (50,482,740 square feet), the majority of which is dedicated to residential space (1,924,000 square metres or 20,709,764 square feet).[114] TheBeirut Central District contains over 60 gardens, squares and open spaces. These spaces comprise landscaped streets, gardens, historical squares, pedestrian areas and sea promenades thus totaling to an area of 96 acres (39 ha) of open spaces.
The central district is Lebanon's prime location for shopping, entertainment, and dining. There are over 100 cafes, restaurants, pubs and nightclubs open in theBeirut Central District, and over 350 retail outlets distributed along its streets and quarters.Beirut Souks alone are home to over 200 stores and a handful of restaurants and cafes. Beirut Souks are theCentral District's oldmedieval market, recently renovated along with the original Hellenistic street grid that characterized the old souks and the area's historical landmarks along long vaulted shopping alleys and arcades.[115]Solidere, the company responsible for the reconstruction and renovation of the district, organizes music and entertainment events all throughout the year like theBeirut Marathon,Fête de la Musique, Beirut Jazz Festival.
However, the means of urban development in this particular area of the city was subject to much criticism and controversy. Rafic Hariri, who would later become prime minister, was the majority stakeholder of the company, which raises concerns of conflict of interest in the context of a public-private partnership.[116] Many of the expropriations that have made the project possible have been made at undervalued land rates, and partly paid in company share. Strict urbanization laws were put in order to oblige people to sell and not renovate themselves.[117] Today, Solidere acts as a de facto municipality, thus this quarter of the city is effectively privatized. It is for example forbidden to ride bikes on Zeituna Bay, a marina where many restaurants are located, and these laws are enforced by private security guards not national or municipal police.
The project was also criticized for destroying some of the city's architectural and cultural heritage. "Among the hundreds of destroyed buildings were "the last Ottoman and medieval remains in Beirut" wrote American University of Beirut professor Nabil Beyhum in theJournal The Beirut Review in 1992. Much of the damage had been done through unapproved demolitions in the 1980s and early 1990s, bringing down "some of the capital's most significant buildings and structures," wrote UCLA professor Saree Makdisi in the journal, Critical Inquiry, in 1997.".[118] Moreover, many of the traditional privately owned shops in the Beirut Downtown were replaced by luxury outlets and high-end restaurants that only few people could afford. And most of public spaces promised by Solidere since the start of the reconstruction, such as "The Garden of Forgiveness", a central park, and an archaeological museum, remain unfinished until today,[when?] putting into question the actual benefit of the project to the population.[118]
The actual success of the project has recently[when?] been in doubt, given that large quarters of the BCD are today empty, due to strong military presence, the Nejmeh Square where the parliament is located is most frequently completely deserted, and the businesses located there have mostly moved.[119]
Beirut's economy is service-oriented with the main growth sectors being banking and tourism.
Beirut became a banking hub by leveraging its position as a commercial port and cultural center within the world economy.[120] Under French mandate after World War I, France heavily invested in the city, reinforcing its role as a regional financial center.[120] The Open Door Policy facilitated foreign capital inflows, with French firms dominating investments and four of Beirut's five leading banks being French-owned by the 1920s,[120] after which the city further solidified its status as a key financial link between the West and the decolonizing Middle East.[120]
In an area dominated by authoritarian or militarist regimes, the Lebanese capital was generally regarded as a haven of libertarianism, though a precarious one, as the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) and subsequent conflicts significantly altered the political landscape.[citation needed] With its seaport and airport—coupled with Lebanon's free economic and foreign exchange system, solid gold-backed currency, banking-secrecy law, and favorable interest rates—Beirut became an established banking center for Arab wealth, much of which was invested in construction, commercial enterprise, and industry (mostly the manufacture of textiles and shoes, food processing, and printing).[121] The economy of Beirut is diverse, including publishing, banking, trade and various industries. During that period, Beirut was the region's financial services center. At the onset of the oil boom starting in the 1960s, Lebanon-based banks were the main recipients of the region's petrodollars.[122]
The banking system is the backbone of the local economy with a balance sheet of $152 billion at the end of 2012, nearing 3.5 times the GDP estimated at $43 billion by theIMF.[124] Bank deposits also increased in 2012 by 8% to 125 billion dollars, 82 percent of the sector's assets. "Banks are still attracting deposits because the interest rates offered are higher than the ones in Europe and the United States", says Marwan Mikhael, head of research atBLOM Bank.[125]
Beirut's foreign reserves were still close to an all-time high when they reached $32.5 billion in 2011 and analysts say that the Central Bank can cover nearly 80 percent of the Lebanese currency in the market. This means that the Central Bank can easily cope with any unforeseen crisis in the future thanks to the massive foreign currency reserves.[126]
The Lebanese banking system is endowed with several characteristics that promote the role of Beirut as a regional financial center, in terms of ensuring protection for foreign capital and earnings. The Lebanese currency is fully convertible and can be exchanged freely with any other currency. Moreover, no restrictions are put on the free flow of capital and earnings into and out of the Lebanese economy. The passing of the banking secrecy law on 3 September 1956, subjected all banks established in Lebanon as well as foreign banks' branches to the "secret of the profession". Both article 16 of law No. 282 dated 30 December 1993 and article 12 of decree No. 5451 dated 26 August 1994, offer exemptions from income tax on all interest and revenues earned on all types of accounts opened in Lebanese banks. On the first of April 1975, decree No. 29 established a free banking zone by granting the Lebanese government the right to exempt non-residents' deposits and liabilities in foreign currency from: the income tax on interest earned, the required reserves imposed by the Banque Du Liban by virtue of article 76 of the Code of Money and Credit, the premium of deposit guarantee imposed on bank deposits to the profit of the National Deposit Guarantee Institution.[127]
The tourism industry in Beirut has been historically important to the local economy and remains to this day to be a major source of revenue for the city, and Lebanon in general. Before theLebanese Civil War, Beirut was widely regarded as the "Paris of the Middle East",[128] and also "Switzerland of the Middle East", often cited as a financial and business hub where visitors could experience theLevantine Mediterranean culture. Beirut's diverse atmosphere and ancient history make it an important destination which is slowly rebuilding itself after continued turmoil. However, in recent times, certain countries, such as the United States, have frequently placed Lebanon, and Beirut in particular, on their travel warnings lists due to the many car bombings and orchestrated acts of political violence.[129][130][131]
Pigeon Rocks sunset
According to the 2012 tourist statistics, 34% of the tourists in Beirut came from states within theArab League, 33% came from European countries (mainly France, Germany, and Britain), and 16% from theAmericas (about half of which are from the United States).[132]
The largely pedestrianizedBeirut Central District is the core of the Beirut tourism scene. The district is a cluster of stone-façade buildings lining arcaded streets and radial alleyways. The architecture of the area is a mix of French Architecture andVenetian Gothic architecture mixed withArabesque andOttoman Architecture. The district contains numerous old mosques and crusader churches, as well as uncovered remnants and ruins of theRoman era. The District contains dozens of restaurants, cafes and pubs, as well as a wide range of shopping stores mainly inBeirut Souks. High-rise hotels and towers line the district's New Waterfront, marina and seaside promenade.
Another popular tourist destination in Beirut is theCorniche Beirut, a 4.8 km (3 mi) pedestrian promenade that encircles the capital's seafront from theSaint George Bay in the north all the way toAvenue de Paris andAvenue General de Gaulle south of the city. The corniche reaches its maximum heightabove sea level atRaouché, a high-rise residential neighbourhood rising over a giant white limestone cliff and facing the recognisable off-shore Raouché Rocks.
Badaro is one of Beirut's most appealing neighborhoods, a lovely place to stroll during daytime and a destination for going out in the evening. Badaro is within Beirut's green district with a 75-acre (30-hectare) public park (The Beirut Pine forest) and a 50-acre (20-hectare) hippodrome. It is a neighborhood on a very human scale with small groceries around every corner. The neighborhood residents, a mix of old impoverished Christian bourgeoisie, bohemian style people in their 30s and well-established urban professionals, are loyal to local bakery and pastry shops. Because of the blossoming café and bar scene it has become lately a hip destination for Beirut's young and restless but old Beirutis remember that Badaro was already Beirut's version of the Village in the swinging sixties.[citation needed] Groceries and eateries can be found on almost every street of the area.[citation needed] There are dozens of restaurants, pubs and footpath cafés of virtually every style.[citation needed] Badaro "Village" thrives on local residents, day-trippers and hipsters from all over Beirut, office employees and many expatriates.[citation needed]
Hamra Street is a long cobblestone street connecting theBeirut Central District with the coastalRaouche area. The street is a large concentration of shopping stores, boutiques, restaurants, banks, street vendors, footpath cafes, newspaper kiosks, and a booming nightlife spurred by students from the neighboringAmerican University of Beirut. The AUB campus is another popular visitor destination, composed of a cluster of 19th century red-roofed buildings dispersed on a wooded hillside overlooking theMediterranean.
Gemmayzeh is Beirut's artisticbohemian quarter, full of narrow streets and historic buildings from theFrench era. It is located East of theBeirut Central District, bordering theSaifi Village. The neighborhood is well known for its trendy bars and pubs, cafes, restaurants and lounges; most are directly located onRue Gouraud, the main thoroughfare that cuts through the middle of the district.Travel + Leisure magazine called Gemmayzeh "SoHo by the Sea," due to its colorful and chic cafés amid 1950s apartment buildings and hole-in-the-wall shops.[133] However, Gemmayzeh received the most damage by the Beirut explosion in 2020.[134]
Downtown Beirut Mosque
Beirut is a destination for tourists from both the Arab world and West.[135] InTravel + Leisure magazine's World Best Awards 2006, it was ranked the 9th best city in the world.[136] That list was voted upon shortly before the 2006 Lebanon War broke out, but in 2008The Guardian listed Beirut as one of its top ten cities in the world.[137]The New York Times ranked it at number one on its "44 places to go" list of 2009.[138] 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in theMiddle East andAfrica, totaling $6.5 billion.[139] Beirut was chosen in 2012 byCondé Nast Traveller as the best city in theMiddle East, beatingTel Aviv andDubai.[140]
Many of the tourists are returning Lebanese expatriates, but many are from Western countries. Approximately 3 million visitors visited in 2010; the previous record was 1.4 million in 1974.[141]
Like other forms of tourism, medical tourism in Lebanon is on the rise recently. Although visitors from neighboring Arab nations make up the bulk of medical tourism patients here due to its proximity, Beirut is strongly trying to woo more Southern Europeans, Asians and North Americans to its land. Its Agency for Investment Development in Lebanon reports that growth in the medical tourism industry is growing by up to 30% a year since 2009. The country's tourism ministry is working closely with the medical sector and top-class hotels to create an organized, quality medical destination.[142] Major hotel and spa chains work with local clinics, travel agencies and the tourism ministry to create comprehensive healthcare and recuperation packages for foreign visitors. The government is highly involved in this industry and strives to make the process as easy as possible.[143]Cosmetic surgery is a major component of medical tourism in Lebanon. Most of the foreign patients come for routine operations like plastic surgery, dental or eye surgery, and Beirut's hospitals are also capable of performing specialized procedures such as internal bypass surgery and other technical treatments. Its top clinics and hospitals like Sahel General are equipped to handle the full range of surgical procedures. Beirut-based Clemenceau Medical Center (CMC), affiliated with Johns Hopkins International, was ranked one of the world's top ten best hospitals for medical tourism in 2012.[144]
Beirut is the capital of Lebanon and its seat of government.[145] The Lebanese Parliament,[146] all the Ministries and most of the public administrations, embassies and consulates are there.[147]Beirut Governorate is one of eightmohafazat (plural ofmohafazah, or governorate).
Higher education throughout Lebanon is provided by universities, colleges and technical and vocational institutes. The Directorate General of Higher Education is responsible for managing universities, colleges, and institutes in Beirut and nationwide.[155]
The city's renovated airport is theRafic Hariri International Airport, located in the southern suburbs. ThePort of Beirut, one of the largest and most commercial in the eastern Mediterranean, is another port of entry. As a final destination, Lebanon can be reached by road from Damascus via the Beqaa valley in the east.[162]
Beirut has frequent bus connections to other cities in Lebanon and majorcities in Syria such as Homs and its capital Damascus. There are a number of different companies providing public transport in Lebanon. The publicly owned buses are managed byOffice des Chemins de Fer et des Transports en Commun (OCFTC – "Railway and Public Transportation Authority"). Buses for northern destinations and Syria leave from Charles Helou Station.[163]
The ministry of transport and public works purchased an extra 250 intra and inter-buses in 2012 to better serve regions outside the capital as well as congestion-choked Beirut, hoping to lessen the use of private cars.[citation needed]
Beirut has also private buses that are provided by the Lebanese Commuting Company.
In 2017, Beirut introduced a bike sharing service in certain areas of the city.
In 2024, Ahdab Commuting and Trading Company (ACTC), alongside the Ministry of Transport, reintroduced a proper public bus system[164] with an appropriate network of lanes using the 50 buses donated by France in 2022.[165] The network connects most areas of Beirut through 7 major lines (B1-7), as well as connecting Beirut to other major cities likeTripoli andSaida[166] through 4 lines (ML1-4).[167] These lines however do not replace the existingservice microbuses,[168] they complement them.
The culture of Beirut has evolved under the influence of many different peoples and civilizations, such as Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Ottoman Turks and French. The law school in downtown Beirut was one of the world's earliest and was considered to be a leading center of legal studies in theEastern Roman Empire.
Beirut has also been called the "party capital of the Arab world".[174]Rue Monnot has an international reputation among clubbers,[175] andRue Gouraud in districts such as Gemmayze and Mar Mikhael have emerged as new hotspots for bar patrons and clubbers, as well as "The Alleyway" inHamra Street.
Planet Discovery is a children's science museum with interactive experiments, exhibitions, performances, workshops and awareness competitions.[180] The Saint Joseph University opened theMuseum of Lebanese Prehistory in 2000, the first prehistory museum in the Arabic Middle East, displaying bones, stone tools and neolithic pottery collected by Jesuits.[181]
In October 2013,Mim Museum, a privatemineral museum, opened its doors to the public. It has on display some 2000 minerals from more than 70 countries. Mim museum's collection is considered to be one of the world's paramount private collection for the variety and quality of its minerals.[182][183] A didactic circuit, accompanied by screens showing films and scientific applications of mineralogy, will reveal a world of unsuspected marvels—priceless both from an aesthetic and scientific point of view.Mimodactylus libanensis "mimo", the fossil of a Pterodactyl, is featured in a special wing. This one-of-a-kind complete specimen in the Middle-East was found in Lebanon. It is promoted by means of state-of-the-art modern techniques: a hologram, an auto-stereoscopic movie, a full-scale reconstitution and a game "fly with mimo" – an entertainment that delights children and adults. Moreover, Mim hosts a thematic exhibition of 200 marine fossils. "Fish'n'Stone" was organised with the collaboration of Mémoire du Temps. Known throughout the world, those fossils were quarried in the Lebanese mountains. The history of the fossil formation is shown through an animation that submerges you in the marine life – a time capsule that takes you in a journey to some 100 million of years ago.
Beirut was named the top place to visit byThe New York Times in 2009,[138] and as one of the ten liveliest cities in the world byLonely Planet in the same year.[184] According to a 2010 study by the American global consulting firmMercer comparing high-end items such as upscale residential areas and entertainment venues, Beirut was ranked as the 4th most expensive city in theMiddle East and 15th among theUpper Middle Income Countries included in the survey.[185] Beirut came in first place regionally and 10th place internationally in a 2010 study by "EuroCost International" about the rental markets for high quality housing.[186][187] Beirut is an international hub of highly active and diversenightlife withbars, dance bars andnightclubs staying open well past midnight.[188][189]The 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in theMiddle East andAfrica, totaling $6.5 billion.[139] Beirut was chosen in 2012 byCondé Nast Traveller as the best city in theMiddle East.[140] In 2013, Condé Nast Traveller ranked Beirut in the top 20 best cities in the world.[190]
In 2016, Yahoo listed Beirut as the best international city for food.[193] Travel and Leisure ranked Beirut in the top 15 of the world's best cities.[194]
It was voted the must-visit city for the year 2019 by World Tourists.[citation needed]
Due to anti-government protests as of October 2019 followed by dire economic situation and travel bans due to coronavirus outbreak, the tourism sector was badly affected resulting in decrease of number of tourists.
Radio StationsMix FM Lebanon,Virgin Radio Lebanon, Radio One Lebanon, Sawt el Ghad, RLL, Jaras Scoop, and NRJ Lebanon are based in Beirut and run operations from here.
While newspapers that headquartered here include Daily Beirut,An-Nahar,Al Joumhouria,As-Safir,Al Mustaqbal,Al-Akhbar,Al-Balad,Ad-Diyar, Al Anwar,Al Sharq, newspapers and magazines that are published in French and English are also available, and these includeL'Orient Le Jour (since 1970), La Revue Du Liban, Al Balad-French Version, Al Intiqad, Magazine L'Hebdo, Le Commerce du Levant, Executive Magazine (weekly), Beirut Online, Beirut Times (weekly) and Monday Morning.
There are hundreds of art galleries in Beirut and its suburbs. Every year, hundreds of fine art students graduate from universities and institutions. Artist workshops exist all over Lebanon. The inauguration of theBeirut Art Center, a non-profit association, space and platform dedicated to contemporary art in Lebanon,[197] in the Mkalles suburb of Beirut added to the number of exhibition spaces available in the city, with a screening and performance room, mediatheque, book store, café and terrace. Adjacent to the latter is theAshkal Alwan Home Workspace, a venue hosting cultural events and educational programs.
A number of international fashion designers[who?] have displayed their work in big fashion shows.[198] Most major fashion labels have shops in Beirut's shopping districts, and the city is home to a number of local fashion designers, some of whom likeElie Saab, Yara Farhat,Reem Acra,Zuhair Murad,Georges Chakra, Georges Hobeika, Jean Faris, Nicolas Jebran,Rabih Kayrouz andAbed Mahfouz have achieved international fame.[198]
Beirut is also the home for a dynamicstreet art scene that has developed after theLebanese Civil War, one of the most notable street artists isYazan Halwani who is known to produce the largest murals on the walls of Beirut in areas such asGemmayzeh,Hamra, Verdun andAchrafieh.[199]
American rock bandBeirut is named for the city.[201]
In the American television seriesHomeland, the episode "Beirut Is Back" (2012) was widely mocked for its portrayal of Beirut's Hamra neighborhood, which the show depicted as being aHezbollah stronghold. Lebanon's government considered filing a lawsuit in response to the episode.[202]
^The Roman name was taken in 1934 for the archaeological journal published by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at theAmerican University of Beirut.[18]
^Burkhalter, L., Bibliographie préhistorique (à suivre) (List of prehistoric sites, continuation and end), Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth. Tome VIII, 1946–1948, Beyrouth, in-4° br., 173 pages.
^Burkhalter L., Bibliographie préhistorique (suite et fin) (List of prehistoric sites, continuation and end), Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth, in-4° br., 117 pages.
^abBergy, Auguste. "La paléolithique ancien stratifié à Ras Beyrouth".Mélanges de l'Université Saint Joseph, Volume 16, 5–6, 1932.
^Describes, Raoul. "Quelques ateliers paléolithiques des environs de Beyrouth",Mélanges de l'Université Saint-Joseph, Volume VII, 1921.
^Karge, P., Rephaim : Die Vorgeschichtliche Kultur Palästinas und Phöniziens, Paderborn (First edition), 1917–1918
^Zumoffen, Godefroy., L'âge de la Pierre en Phénicie, L'Anthropologie, Volume 8, page 272, 1898.
^Lauffray, J., Forums et monuments de Béryte, BULLETIN DU MUSEE DE BEYROUTH. Tome VII, 1944–1945, Beyrouth, in-4° br., 124 pages dont 4 de texte arabe, 29 planches hors-texte.
^Nina Jidejian (1973).Beirut through the ages. Dar el-Machreq distribution: Librairie orientale.
^Ralph K. Pederson, Archaeological Assessment Report on the Venus Towers Site (BEY 194), Beirut – For the Venus Towers Real Estate Development Company, Philipps-Universität Marburg, 30 May – 3 June 2012.
^abCurvers; Stuart (2007)."The BCD Archaeology Project, 2000–2006".Bulletin d'Archéologie et d'Architecture Libanaises.9:189–221.Archived from the original on 13 October 2021. Retrieved6 February 2014.
^Cohen, Getzel (2006),The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa,University of California Press, p. 205,ISBN978-0-520-93102-2,Berytos, being part of Phoenicia, was under Ptolemaic control until 200BC. After the battle of Panion, Phoenicia and southern Syria passed to the Seleucids. In the second century BC, Laodikeia issued both autonomous as well as quasi-autonomous coins. The autonomous bronze coins had a Tyche on the obverse. The reverse often had Poseidon or Astarte standing on the prow of a ship, the letters BH or ΛΑ and the monogram Φ, that is, the initials of Berytos/Laodikeia and Phoenicia, and, on a few coins, the Phoenician legend LL'DK' 'S BKN 'N or LL'DK' 'M BKN 'N, which has been read as "Of Laodikcia which is in Canaan" or "Of Laodikcia Mother in Canaan. The quasi-municipal coins—issued under Antiochos IV Epiphanes (175–164 BC) and continuing with Alexander I Balas (150–145 BC), Demetrios II Nikator (146–138 BC), and Alexander II Zabinas (128–123 BC)—contained the king's head on the obverse, and on the reverse the name of the king in Greek, the city name in Phoenician (LL'DK' 'S BKN 'N or LL'DK' 'M BKN 'N), the Greek letters ΛΑ, and the monogram Φ. Afterc. 123BC the Phoenician "Of Laodikcia which is in Canaan" / "Of Laodikcia Mother in Canaan is no longer attested.
^Hollerich, Michael (22 June 2021).Making Christian History: Eusebius of Caesarea and His Readers (1st ed.). Univ of California Press. pp. 67, 332.ISBN978-0-520-29536-0.
^Cappelen, John; Jensen, Jens."Libanon – Beyrouth"(PDF).Climate Data for Selected Stations (1931–1960) (in Danish). Danish Meteorological Institute. p. 167. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 16 January 2013. Retrieved2 March 2013.
^abcdSchayegh, Cyrus (2018).The Middle East and the Making of the Modern World (1st ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 7–134.ISBN978-0-674-98110-2.
^It slowly however eventually regained its title as one of the region's largest economical hubs after massive reconstruction in its central district and infrastructure."Profile of Lebanon: Economy". Archived fromthe original on 8 September 2013. Retrieved27 November 2010.
^"Contact Us".Middle East Airlines. Archived fromthe original on 27 January 2010. Retrieved19 October 2009.
^abWise, Zach; Meek/, Miki (11 January 2009)."The 44 Places to Go in 2009 – Interactive Graphic".The New York Times. Beirut (Lebanon);Washington (DC);Galápagos Islands;Berlin (Germany);Las Vegas (Nev);Hawaii;Vienna (Austria);Doha (Qatar);Dakar (Senegal);Phuket (Thailand);Chicago (Ill);Dallas (Tex);Bhutan;Florida Keys;Rome (Italy);Cuba;Penang (Malaysia);Seychelles Islands;Florianopolis (Brazil);Copenhagen (Denmark);Monument Valley;Great Britain;Cologne (Germany);Reykjavík (Iceland);Red Sea;Egypt;Deauville (France);South Africa;India;Kazakhstan;Buffalo (NY);Madagascar;Tasmania (Australia);Stockholm (Sweden);Alaska;Pennsylvania;Zambia.Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. Retrieved5 May 2009.
^Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1837). "picture".Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838. Fisher, Son & Co.Archived from the original on 18 December 2022. Retrieved18 December 2022.Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1837). "poetical illustration".Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838. Fisher, Son & Co. p. 29.Archived from the original on 18 December 2022. Retrieved18 December 2022.
^Syme, Rachel (4 August 2006)."Beirut: The Band".New York. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020. Retrieved11 January 2023.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
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