In prehistoric times, humans huntedaurochs and laterdomesticated them. Since that time, numerousbreeds of cattle have beenbred specifically for the quality or quantity of their meat. Today, beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, afterpork andpoultry. As of 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China were the largest producers of beef.
The wordbeef is from the Latin wordbōs,[1] in contrast tocow which is from Middle Englishcou (both words have the sameIndo-European root*gʷou-).[2]
This is one example of the common English dichotomy between the words for animals (with largelyGermanic origins) and their meat (withRomanic origins) that is also found in such English word-pairs aspig/pork,deer/venison,sheep/mutton, andchicken/poultry (also the less commongoat/chevon).[3]Beef iscognate withbovine through theLate Latinbovīnus.[4] The rarely used plural form of beef isbeeves.[5]
History
People have eaten the flesh ofbovines since prehistoric times. Theaurochs, the ancestor of modern domestic cattle, is known to have been hunted and consumed byNeanderthals.[6] Some of the earliest knowncave paintings, such as those ofLascaux, show aurochs in hunting scenes.[7] Peopledomesticated cattle to provide ready access to beef,milk, andleather.[8] Cattle have been domesticated at least twice over the course of evolutionary history. The first domestication event occurred around 10,500 years ago with the evolution ofBos taurus. The second was more recent, around 7,000 years ago, with the evolution ofBos indicus in theIndian subcontinent. There is a possible third domestication event 8,500 years ago, with a potential third speciesBos africanus arising in Africa.[9]
In the United States, the growth of the beef business was largely due to expansion in the Southwest. Upon the acquisition of grasslands through theMexican–American War of 1848, and later the expulsion of the Plains Indians from this region and theMidwest, the American livestock industry began, starting primarily with the taming offeral andsemi-feral Longhorn cattle. Chicago and New York City were the first to benefit from these developments in their stockyards and in their meat markets.[10]
Production
Beef and buffalo meat production tonnes
Cattle is the third most commonly consumed meat worldwideBeef (and buffalo meat) production has grown substantially over the recent 60 years.Beef has the highest emissions intensity of any agricultural commodity.
Beef cattle are raised andfed using a variety of methods, includingfeedlots,free range,ranching,backgrounding andintensive animal farming.Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs), commonly referred to as factory farms, are commonly used to meet the demand of beef production. CAFOs supply 70.4% of cows in the US market and 99% of all meat in the United States supply.[11] Cattle CAFOs can also be a source ofE. coli contamination in the food supply[12] due to the prevalence of manure in CAFOs. TheseE. coli contaminations include one strain,E. coli O157:H7, which can be toxic to humans, because cattle typically hold this strain in their digestive system.[13] Another consequence of unsanitary conditions created by high-density confinement systems is increaseduse of antibiotics in order to prevent illness.[14] An analysis ofFDA sales data by theNatural Resources Defense Council found 42% of medically important antibiotic use in the U.S. was on cattle, posing concerns about the development ofantibiotic resistant bacteria.[15] In 2023 production was forecast to peak by 2035.[16]
The consumption of beef poses numerous threats to thenatural environment. Of all agricultural products, beef requires some of the most land and water, and its production results in the greatest amount ofgreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,[19] air pollution, and water pollution.[20] A 2021 study added up GHG emissions from the entire lifecycle, including production, transportation, and consumption, and estimated that beef contributed about 4 billion tonnes (9%) ofanthropogenic greenhouse gases in 2010.[21]: 728 Cattle populations graze around 26% of all land on Earth, not including the largeagricultural fields that are used to grow cattle feed.[22][23] According toFAO, "Ranching-induced deforestation is one of the main causes of loss of some unique plant and animal species in the tropical rainforests of Central and South America as well as carbon release in the atmosphere."[24] Beef is also the primary driver ofdeforestation in theAmazon, with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle.[25][26][27] 91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching.[22][28] 41% of global deforestation from 2005 to 2013 has been attributed to the expansion of beef production.[29] This is due to the higher ratio of net energy of gain to net energy of maintenance where metabolizable energy intake is higher.[30] The ratio of feed required to produce an equivalent amount of beef (live weight) has been estimated at 7:1 to 43:1, compared with about 2:1 for chicken.[31][32][33] However, assumptions about feed quality are implicit in such generalizations. For example, production of a kilogram of beef cattle live weight may require between 4 and 5 kilograms of feed high in protein and metabolizable energy content, or more than 20 kilograms of feed of much lower quality.[30] A simple exchange of beef to soy beans (a common feed source for cattle) in Americans' diets would, according to one estimate, result in meeting between 46 and 74 percent of the reductions needed to meet the 2020 greenhouse gas emission goals of the United States as pledged in 2009.[34][needs update] A 2021CSIRO trial concluded that feeding cattle a 3% diet of the seaweedAsparagopsis taxiformis could reduce the methane component of their emissions by 80%.[35][36] While such feed options are still experimental, even when looking at the most widely used feeds around the globe, there is high variability in efficiency.[37] One study found that shifting compositions of current feeds, production areas, and informed land restoration could enable greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 34–85% annually (612–1,506 MtCO2e yr−1) without increasing costs to global beef production.[38]
In 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China produced the most beef with 12.22 million tons, 9.9 million tons, and 6.46 million tons respectively.[49] The top 3 beef exporting countries in 2019 were Australia (14.8% of total exports), the United States (13.4% of total exports), and Brazil (12.6% of total exports).[50] Beef production is also important to theeconomies of Japan, Argentina, Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Belarus and Nicaragua.
Top 5 cattle and beef exporting countries
As per 2020, Brazil was the largest beef exporter in the world followed by Australia, United States, India (IncludesCarabeef only) and Argentina.[51] Brazil, Australia, the United States and India accounted for roughly 61% of the world's beef exports.[52]
The world produced 60.57 million metric tons of beef in 2020, down 950K metric tons from the prior year. Major decline for production of beef was from India up to 510k and Australia down to 309K metric tons from the prior year.[55]
Heatwaves can also reduce milk yield, with particularly acute impacts if the heatwave lasts for four or more days, as at that point the cow's thermoregulation capacity is usually exhausted, and its core body temperature starts to increase.[57] At worst, heatwaves can lead to mass mortality: in July 1995, over 4,000 cattle died in the mid-centralUnited States heatwave. In 1999, over 5,000 cattle died during a heatwave in northeasternNebraska.[58] Studies suggest thatBrahman cattle and its cross-breeds are more resistant to heat stress than the regularbos taurus breeds,[59] but it is considered unlikely that even more heat-resistant cattle can be bred at a sufficient rate to keep up with the expected warming.[60]
Both male and female cattle can have their reproduction impaired by heat stress. In males, severe heat can affect bothspermatogenesis and the storedspermatozoa. It may take up to eight weeks for sperm to become viable again. In females, heat stress negatively affectsconception rates as it impairscorpus luteum and thusovarian function andoocyte quality. Even after conception, a pregnancy is less likely to be carried to term due to reducedendometrial function anduterine blood flow, leading to increased embryonic mortality and early fetal loss.[58]
Beef is first divided intoprimal cuts, large pieces of the animal initially separated by butchering. These are basic sections from whichsteaks and other subdivisions are cut. The term "primal cut" is quite different from "prime cut", used to characterize cuts considered to be of higher quality. Since the animal's legs and neck muscles do the most work, they are the toughest; the meat becomes more tender as distance fromhoof and horn increases. Different countries and cuisines have different cuts and names, and sometimes use the same name for a different cut; for example, the cut described as "brisket" in the United States is from a significantly different part of the carcass than British brisket.[citation needed]
To improvetenderness of beef, it is often aged (i.e., stored refrigerated) to allow endogenousproteolytic enzymes to weaken structural andmyofibrillar proteins. Wet aging is accomplished using vacuum packaging to reduce spoilage and yield loss. Dry aging involves hanging primals (usually ribs or loins) in humidity-controlled coolers. Outer surfaces dry out and can support growth of molds (and spoilage bacteria, if too humid), resulting in trim and evaporative losses.
Evaporation concentrates the remaining proteins and increases flavor intensity; the molds can contribute a nut-like flavor. After two to three days there are significant effects. The majority of the tenderizing effect occurs in the first 10 days. Boxed beef, stored and distributed in vacuum packaging, is, in effect, wet aged during distribution. Premium steakhouses dry age for 21 to 28 days or wet age up to 45 days for maximum effect on flavor and tenderness.
Meat from less tender cuts or older cattle can be mechanically tenderized by forcing small, sharp blades through the cuts to disrupt the proteins. Also, solutions of exogenous proteolytic enzymes (papain,bromelin orficin) can be applied or injected to augment the endogenous enzymes; this can be done with purified enzyme or by using amarinade including ingredients that naturally contain the enzyme (e.g.papaya for papain orpineapple for bromelin). Similarly, solutions of salt and sodium phosphates can be injected to soften and swell the myofibrillar proteins. This improves juiciness and tenderness. Salt can improve the flavor, but phosphate can contribute a soapy flavor.
Cooking the beef over or under a high radiant heat source, generally in excess of 340 °C (650 °F). This leads to searing of the surface of the beef, which creates a flavorsome crust. In Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Canada, the UK, Germany and The Netherlands, grilling, particularly over charcoal, is sometimes known asbarbecuing, often shortened to "BBQ". When cooked over charcoal, this method can also be called charbroiling.
Meat may be cooked on a hot metal griddle. A little oil or fat may be added to inhibit sticking; the dividing line when the method becomes shallow frying is not well-defined.
A way of cooking meat in a hotoven, producingroast beef. Liquid is not usually added; the beef may bebasted by fat on the top, or by spooning hot fat from the oven pan over the top. Agravy may be made from the cooking juices, after skimming off excess fat. Roasting is suitable for thicker pieces of meat; the other methods listed are usually for steaks and similar cuts.
Beef can be cooked to various degrees, from very rare to well done. The degree of cooking corresponds to the temperature in the approximate center of the meat, which can be measured with ameat thermometer. Beef can be cooked using thesous-vide method, which cooks the entire steak to the same temperature, but when cooked using a method such asbroiling orroasting it is typically cooked such that it has a "bulls eye" of doneness, with the least done (coolest) at the center and the most done (warmest) at the outside.
Frying
Meat can be cooked in boiling oil, typically byshallow frying, althoughdeep frying may be used, often for meat enrobed withbreadcrumbs as inmilanesas orfinger steaks. Larger pieces such as steaks may be cooked this way, or meat may be cut smaller as instir frying, typically an Asian way of cooking: cooking oil with flavorings such as garlic, ginger and onions is put in a very hotwok. Then small pieces of meat are added, followed by ingredients which cook more quickly, such as mixed vegetables. The dish is ready when the ingredients are 'just cooked'.
Moist heat
Moist heat cooking methods includebraising,pot roasting,stewing andsous-vide. These techniques are often used for cuts of beef that are tougher, as these longer, lower-temperature cooking methods have time to dissolve connecting tissue which otherwise makes meat remain tough after cooking.
cooking meats, in a covered container, with small amounts of liquids (usually seasoned or flavored). Unlike stewing, braised meat is not fully immersed in liquid, and usually is browned before the oven step.
Sous-vide, French for "under vacuum", is a method of cooking food sealed in airtight plastic bags in a water bath for a long time—72 hours is not unknown—at an accurately determined temperature much lower than normally used for other types of cooking. The intention is to maintain the integrity of ingredients and achieve very precise control of cooking. Although water is used in the method, only moisture in or added to the food bags is in contact with the food.
Beef roasted withvinegar and sliced with spiced paste, often called "cold beef"
Meat has usually been cooked in water which is justsimmering, such as in stewing; higher temperatures make meat tougher by causing the proteins to contract. Sincethermostatic temperature control became available, cooking at temperatures well below boiling, 52 °C (126 °F) (sous-vide) to 90 °C (194 °F) (slow cooking), for prolonged periods has become possible; this is just hot enough to convert the toughcollagen in connective tissue into gelatin throughhydrolysis, with minimal toughening.
With the adequate combination of temperature and cooking time,pathogens, such asbacteria will be killed, andpasteurization can be achieved. Because browning (Maillard reactions) can only occur at higher temperatures (above the boiling point of water), these moist techniques do not develop the flavors associated with browning. Meat will often undergosearing in a very hot pan,grilling or browning with a torch before moist cooking (though sometimes after).
Thermostatically controlled methods, such as sous-vide, can also prevent overcooking by bringing the meat to the exact degree of doneness desired, and holding it at that temperature indefinitely. The combination of precise temperature control and long cooking duration makes it possible to be assured that pasteurization has been achieved, both on the surface and the interior of even very thick cuts of meat, which can not be assured with most other cooking techniques. (Although extremely long-duration cooking can break down the texture of the meat to an undesirable degree.)
Beef can be cooked quickly at the table through several techniques. Inhot pot cooking, such asshabu-shabu, very thinly sliced meat is cooked by the diners at the table by immersing it in a heated pot of water or stock with vegetables. Infondue bourguignonne, diners dip small pieces of beef into a pot of hot oil at the table. Both techniques typically feature accompanying flavorfulsauces to complement the meat.
Steak tartare is aFrench dish made from finely chopped or ground (minced) raw meat (often beef). More accurately, it is scraped so as not to let even the slightest of the sinew fat get into the scraped meat. It is often served with onions, capers, seasonings such as fresh ground pepper and Worcestershire sauce, and sometimes raw egg yolk.
TheBelgian or Dutch dishfilet américain is also made of finely chopped ground beef, though it is seasoned differently, and either eaten as a main dish or can be used as a dressing for a sandwich.Kibbeh nayyeh is a similarLebanese andSyrian dish. And in Ethiopia, a ground raw meat dish calledtire siga orkitfo is eaten (upon availability).
Carpaccio of beef is a thin slice of raw beef dressed with olive oil, lemon juice and seasoning. Often, the beef is partially frozen before slicing to allow very thin slices to be cut.
Yukhoe is a variety ofhoe, raw dishes inKorean cuisine which is usually made from raw ground beef seasoned with various spices or sauces. The beef part used foryukhoe is tenderrump steak. For the seasoning,soy sauce, sugar, salt, sesame oil, green onion, and ground garlic, sesame seed, black pepper and juice ofbae (Korean pear) are used. The beef is mostly topped with the yolk of a raw egg.
Bresaola is anair-dried, salted beef that has been aged about two to three months until it becomes hard and a dark red, almost purple, colour. It is lean, has a sweet, musty smell and is tender. It originated inValtellina, a valley in theAlps of northern Italy'sLombardy region.Bündnerfleisch is a similar product from neighbouring Switzerland.Chipped beef is an American industrially produced air-dried beef product, described by one of its manufacturers as being "similar to bresaola, but not as tasty."[63]
Beef jerky is dried, salted, smoked beef popular in the United States.
Biltong is a cured, salted, air dried beef popular in South Africa.
Pastrami is often made from beef; raw beef issalted, then partly dried and seasoned with various herbs and spices, andsmoked.
Corned beef is a cut of beef cured or pickled in a seasonedbrine. The corn incorned beef refers to the grains of coarse salts (known as corns) used to cure it. The termcorned beef can denote different styles of brine-cured beef, depending on the region. Some, like American-style corned beef, are highly seasoned and often considereddelicatessen fare.
Spiced beef is a cured and salted joint of round, topside, or silverside, traditionally served atChristmas in Ireland. It is a form ofsalt beef, cured with spices andsaltpetre, intended to be boiled or broiled inGuinness or a similarstout, and then optionally roasted for a period after.[64] There are various other recipes forpickled beef.Sauerbraten is a German variant.
Consumption
Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, afterpork andpoultry at 38% and 30% respectively.[65]
Beef is a source of complete protein and it is a rich source (20% or more of theDaily Value, DV) ofniacin,vitamin B12,iron andzinc. It contains high amounts ofsaturated fat.[68][69]Red meat is the most significant dietary source ofcarnitine and, like any other meat (pork, fish, veal, lamb etc.), is a source ofcreatine. Creatine is converted to creatinine during cooking.[70]
If meat isprocessed, such as by salting, curing, or smoking, health risks further increase.[74] The IARC found "convincing" evidence that processed meat causes cancer in humans.[74] TheWorld Cancer Research Fund recommends limiting red meat to no more than three servings per week.[75]
A 2010 meta-analysis found that processedred meat (and allprocessed meat) was correlated with a higher risk ofcoronary heart disease, although based on studies that separated the two, this meta-analysis found that red meat intake was not associated with higher incidence of coronary heart disease.[76] As of 2020, there is substantial evidence for a link between high consumption of red meat and coronary heart disease.[77][78][79]
Dioxins
Some cattle raised in the United States feed on pastures fertilized withsewage sludge. Elevateddioxins may be present in meat from these cattle.[80]
E. coli recalls
Ground beef has been subject to recalls in the United States, due toEscherichia coli (E. coli) contamination:
January 2011, One Great Burger expands recall.[81]
February 2011, American Food Service, a Pico Rivera, Calif. establishment, is recalling approximately 1,440 kg (3,170 lb) of fresh ground beef patties and other bulk packages of ground beef products that may be contaminated withE. coli O157:H7.[82]
March 2011, 6,400 kg (14,000 lb) beef recalled by Creekstone Farms Premium Beef due toE. coli concerns.[83]
April 2011, National Beef Packaging recalled more than 27,000 kg (60,000 lb) of ground beef due toE. coli contamination.[84]
May 2011, Irish Hills Meat Company of Michigan, a Tipton, Mich., establishment is recalling approximately 410 kg (900 lb) of ground beef products that may be contaminated withE. coli O157:H7.[85]
September 2011, Tyson Fresh Meats recalled 59,500 kg (131,100 lb) of ground beef due toE. coli contamination.[86]
December 2011, Tyson Fresh Meats recalled 18,000 kg (40,000 lb) of ground beef due toE. coli contamination.[87]
January 2012, Hannaford Supermarkets recalled all ground beef with sell by dates 17 December 2011 or earlier.[88]
September 2012, XL Foods recalled more than 1800 products believed to be contaminated withE. coli 0157:H7. The recalled products were produced at the company's plant in Brooks, Alberta, Canada; this was the largest recall of its kind in Canadian History.[89][90]
Deaths in the UK caused by vCJD from the start of the BSE outbreak up until 2009. MM and MV refer to the two genotypes of vCJD.[92]
Since then, other countries have had outbreaks of BSE:
In May 2003, after a cow with BSE was discovered inAlberta, Canada, the American border was closed to live Canadian cattle, but was reopened in early 2005.[93]
In June 2005, Dr. John Clifford, chief veterinary officer for theUnited States Department of Agriculture animal health inspection service, confirmed a fully domestic case of BSE inTexas. Clifford would not identify the ranch, calling that "privileged information."[94] The 12-year-old animal was alive at the time whenOprah Winfrey raised concerns about cannibalistic feeding practices on her show[95] which aired 16 April 1996.
In 2010, the EU, through the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), proposed a roadmap to gradually lift the restrictions on the feed ban.[96] In 2013, the ban on feeding mammal-based products to cattle,[97] was amended to allow for certain milk, fish, eggs, and plant-fed farm animal products to be used.[98]
Most Indic religions reject the killing and eating of cows. Hinduism prohibits the consumption of cow beef, known asgomāṃsa inSanskrit. Bovines have a sacred status inIndia especially the cow, due to their provision of sustenance for families. Bovines are generally considered to be integral to the landscape. However, they do not consider the cow to be a god.[99]
Many of India's rural economies depend on cattle farming; hence they have been revered in society.[100][101] Since theVedic period, cattle, especially cows, were venerated as a source of milk, and dairy products, and their relative importance in transport services and farming likeploughing, row planting, ridging. Veneration grew with the advent ofJainism and theGupta period.[102] In medieval India,Maharaja Ranjit Singh issued a proclamation on stopping cow slaughter. Conflicts over cow slaughter often have sparked religious riots that have led to loss of human life and in one 1893 riot alone, more than 100 people were killed for the cause.[103]
For religious reasons, the ancient Egyptian priests also refrained from consuming beef. Buddhists and Sikhs are also against wrongful slaughtering of animals, but they do not have a wrongful eating doctrine.[104]
Inancient China, the killing of cattle and consumption of beef was prohibited, as they were valued for their role inagriculture. This custom is still followed by a few Chinese families across the world.[105]
Most of theNorth Indian states[107] prohibit the killing of cow and consumption of beef for religious reasons.[108][109][110][111][112] Certain Hindu castes and sects continue to avoid beef from theirdiets.[113][114] Article 48 of theConstitution of India mandates the state may take steps for preserving and improving the bovine breeds, and prohibit the slaughter, of cows and calves and other milch and draught cattle.Article 47 of the Constitution of India provides states must raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health as among its primary duties, based on this a reasonableness in slaughter of common cattle was instituted, if the animals ceased to be capable of breeding, providing milk, or serving as draught animals. The overall mismanagement of India's common cattle is dubbed in academic fields as "India's bovine burden."[115][116]
In 2017, a rule against the slaughter of cattle and the eating of beef was signed into law by presidential assent as a modified version of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960. The original act, however, did permit the humane slaughter of animals for use as food.[117][118] Existing meat export policy in India prohibits the export of beef (meat of cow, oxen and calf). Bone-in meat, a carcass, or half carcass of buffalo is also prohibited from export. Only the boneless meat of buffalo, meat of goat and sheep and birds is permitted for export.[119][120] In 2017, India sought a total "beef ban" and Australian market analysts predicted that this would create market opportunities for leather traders and meat producers there and elsewhere. Their prediction estimated a twenty percent shortage of beef and a thirteen percent shortage of leather in the world market.[121]
Nepal
The cow is the national animal of Nepal, and slaughter of cattle is prohibited by law.[122][123]
Cuba
In 2003, Cuba banned cow slaughter due to severe shortage of milk and milk products.[124] On 14 April 2021, the ban was loosened, allowing ranchers to do as they wish as long as state quotas were met and the health of the herd could be ensured.[125]
^Horowitz, Roger (2006).Putting Meat on the American Table: Taste, Technology, Transformation. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN0801882419.
^Gaughan, J. B.; Mader, T. L.; Holt, S. M.; Sullivan, M. L.; Hahn, G. L. (21 May 2009). "Assessing the heat tolerance of 17 beef cattle genotypes".International Journal of Biometeorology.54 (6):617–627.doi:10.1007/s00484-009-0233-4.PMID19458966.S2CID10134761.
^Oh, Mirae; Kim, Eun-Kyung; Jeon, Byong-Tae; Tang, Yujiao (2016). "Chemical compositions, free amino acid contents and antioxidant activities of Hanwoo (Bos taurus coreanae) beef by cut".Meat Science.119:16–21.doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.04.016.PMID27115864.Beef is one of the main animal food resources providing protein and essential nutrients, including essential amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins, for human consumption.
^John R. K. Robson (1980).Food, Ecology, and Culture: Readings in the Anthropology of Dietary Practices. Taylor & Francis. p. 126.ISBN978-0-677-16090-0.
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