TheStaatliches Bauhaus (German:[ˈʃtaːtlɪçəsˈbaʊˌhaʊs]ⓘ), commonly known as theBauhaus (German for 'building house'), was a Germanart school operational from 1919 to 1933 that combinedcrafts and thefine arts.[1] The school became famous for its approach todesign, which attempted to unify individual artistic vision with the principles ofmass production and emphasis onfunction.[1]
The Bauhaus was founded by architectWalter Gropius inWeimar. It was grounded in the idea of creating aGesamtkunstwerk ("comprehensive artwork") in which all the arts would eventually be brought together. The Bauhaus style later became one of the most influential currents in modern design,modernist architecture, and architectural education.[2] The Bauhaus movement had a profound influence on subsequent developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design,industrial design, andtypography.[3] Staff at the Bauhaus included prominent artists such asPaul Klee,Wassily Kandinsky,Gunta Stölzl, andLászló Moholy-Nagy at various points.
The school existed in three German cities—Weimar, from 1919 to 1925;Dessau, from 1925 to 1932; andBerlin, from 1932 to 1933—under three different architect-directors:Walter Gropius from 1919 to 1928;Hannes Meyer from 1928 to 1930; andLudwig Mies van der Rohe from 1930 until 1933, when the school was closed by its own leadership under pressure from theNazi regime, having been painted as a centre of communist intellectualism.[4] Internationally, former key figures of Bauhaus were successful in the United States and became known as theavant-garde for theInternational Style.[5] TheWhite city of Tel Aviv, to which numerous Jewish Bauhaus architects emigrated, has the highest concentration of the Bauhaus' international architecture in the world.
The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, and politics. For example, thepottery shop was discontinued when the school moved from Weimar to Dessau, even though it had been an important revenue source; when Mies van der Rohe took over the school in 1930, to try to avoidNazi government pressure, he transformed it into aprivate school and would not allow any supporters ofHannes Meyer to attend it.
Several specific features are identified in the Bauhaus forms and shapes: simple geometric shapes like rectangles and spheres, without elaborate decorations. Buildings, furniture, and fonts often feature rounded corners, sometimes rounded walls, or curved chrome pipes. Some buildings are characterized by rectangular features, for example protruding balconies with flat, chunky railings facing the street, and long banks of windows. Some outlines can be defined as a tool for creating an ideal form, which is the basis of the architectural concept.[6]
After Germany's defeat inWorld War I and the establishment of theWeimar Republic, a renewed liberal spirit allowed an upsurge of radical experimentation in all the arts, which had been suppressed by the old regime. Many Germans of left-wing views were influenced by the cultural experimentation that followed theRussian Revolution, such asconstructivism. Such influences can be overstated: Gropius did not share these radical views, and said that Bauhaus was entirely apolitical.[7] Just as important was the influence of the 19th-century English designerWilliam Morris (1834–1896), who had argued that art should meet the needs of society and that there should be no distinction between form and function.[8] Thus, the Bauhaus style, also known as theInternational Style, was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between the function of an object or a building and its design.
However, the most important influence on Bauhaus wasmodernism, a cultural movement whose origins lay as early as the 1880s, and which had already made its presence felt in Germany before the World War, despite the prevailing conservatism. The design innovations commonly associated with Gropius and the Bauhaus—the radically simplified forms, the rationality and functionality, and the idea thatmass production was reconcilable with the individual artistic spirit—were already partly developed in Germany before the Bauhaus was founded. The German national designers' organizationDeutscher Werkbund was formed in 1907 byHermann Muthesius to harness the new potentials of mass production, with a mind towards preserving Germany's economic competitiveness with England. In its first seven years, the Werkbund came to be regarded as the authoritative body on questions of design in Germany, and was copied in other countries. Many fundamental questions of craftsmanship versus mass production, the relationship of usefulness and beauty, the practical purpose of formal beauty in a commonplace object, and whether or not a single proper form could exist, were argued out among its 1,870 members (by 1914).
Poster for the Bauhausausstellung (1923)
German architectural modernism was known asNeues Bauen. Beginning in June 1907,Peter Behrens' pioneeringindustrial design work for the German electrical companyAEG successfully integrated art and mass production on a large scale. He designed consumer products, standardized parts, created clean-lined designs for the company's graphics, developed a consistent corporate identity, built the modernist landmarkAEG Turbine Factory, and made full use of newly developed materials such as poured concrete and exposed steel. Behrens was a founding member of the Werkbund, and both Walter Gropius andAdolf Meyer worked for him in this period.
The Bauhaus was founded at a time when the Germanzeitgeist had turned from emotionalExpressionism to the matter-of-factNew Objectivity. An entire group of working architects, includingErich Mendelsohn,Bruno Taut andHans Poelzig, turned away from fanciful experimentation and towards rational, functional, sometimes standardized building. Beyond the Bauhaus, many other significant German-speaking architects in the 1920s responded to the same aesthetic issues and material possibilities as the school. They also responded to the promise "to promote the object of assuring to every German a healthful habitation" written into the newWeimar Constitution (Article 155).Ernst May, Bruno Taut andMartin Wagner, among others, built large housing blocks inFrankfurt and Berlin. The acceptance of modernist design into everyday life was the subject of publicity campaigns, well-attended public exhibitions like theWeissenhof Estate, films, and sometimes fierce public debate.
The Vkhutemas, the Russian state art and technical school founded in 1920 inMoscow, has been compared to Bauhaus. Founded a year after the Bauhaus school, Vkhutemas has close parallels to the German Bauhaus in its intent, organization and scope. The two schools were the first to train artist-designers in a modern manner.[9] Both schools were state-sponsored initiatives to merge traditional craft with modern technology, with a basic course in aesthetic principles, courses incolor theory, industrial design, and architecture.[9] Vkhutemas was a larger school than the Bauhaus,[10] but it was less publicised outside theSoviet Union and consequently, is less familiar inthe West.[11]
With the internationalism of modern architecture and design, there were many exchanges between the Vkhutemas and the Bauhaus.[12] The second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer attempted to organise an exchange between the two schools, while Hinnerk Scheper of the Bauhaus collaborated with various Vkhutein members on the use of colour in architecture. In addition,El Lissitzky's bookRussia: an Architecture for World Revolution published in German in 1930 featured several illustrations of Vkhutemas/Vkhutein projects there.
The school was founded by Walter Gropius inWeimar on 1 April 1919,[13] as a merger of theGrand Ducal Saxon Academy of Fine Art and the Grand Ducal Saxon School of Arts and Crafts for a newly affiliated architecture department.[14] Its roots lay in the arts and crafts school founded by theGrand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1906, and directed by BelgianArt Nouveau architectHenry van de Velde.[15] When van de Velde was forced to resign in 1915 because he was Belgian, he suggested Gropius,Hermann Obrist, andAugust Endell as possible successors. In 1919, after delays caused byWorld War I and a lengthy debate over who should head the institution and the socio-economic meanings of a reconciliation of thefine arts and theapplied arts (an issue which remained a defining one throughout the school's existence), Gropius was made the director of a new institution integrating the two called the Bauhaus.[16] In the pamphlet for an April 1919 exhibition entitledExhibition of Unknown Architects, Gropius, still very much under the influence ofWilliam Morris and the BritishArts and Crafts Movement, proclaimed his goal as being "to create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctions which raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist." Gropius'sneologismBauhaus references both building and the Bauhütte, apremodernguild of stonemasons.[17] The early intention was for the Bauhaus to be a combined architecture school, crafts school, and academy of the arts. Swiss painterJohannes Itten, German-American painterLyonel Feininger, and German sculptorGerhard Marcks, along with Gropius, comprised the faculty of the Bauhaus in 1919. By the following year their ranks had grown to include German painter, sculptor, and designerOskar Schlemmer who headed the theatre workshop, and Swiss painterPaul Klee, joined in 1922 by Russian painterWassily Kandinsky. The first major joint project completed by the Bauhaus was theSommerfeld House, which was built between 1920 and 1921. A tumultuous year at the Bauhaus, 1922 also saw the move of Dutch painterTheo van Doesburg to Weimar to promoteDe Stijl ("The Style"), and a visit to the Bauhaus by Russian Constructivist artist and architectEl Lissitzky.[18]
From 1919 to 1922 the school was shaped by the pedagogical and aesthetic ideas ofJohannes Itten, who taught theVorkurs or "preliminary course" that was the introduction to the ideas of the Bauhaus.[16] Itten was heavily influenced in his teaching by the ideas ofFranz Cižek andFriedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. He was also influenced in respect to aesthetics by the work of theDer Blaue Reiter group inMunich, as well as the work of Austrian ExpressionistOskar Kokoschka. The influence of GermanExpressionism favoured by Itten was analogous in some ways to the fine arts side of the ongoing debate. This influence culminated with the addition ofDer Blaue Reiter founding memberWassily Kandinsky to the faculty and ended when Itten resigned in late 1923. Itten was replaced by the Hungarian designerLászló Moholy-Nagy, who rewrote theVorkurs with a leaning towards the New Objectivity favoured by Gropius, which was analogous in some ways to the applied arts side of the debate. Although this shift was an important one, it did not represent a radical break from the past so much as a small step in a broader, more gradual socio-economic movement that had been going on at least since 1907, when van de Velde had argued for a craft basis for design whileHermann Muthesius had begun implementing industrial prototypes.[18]
Gropius was not necessarily againstExpressionism, and in the same 1919 pamphlet proclaiming this "new guild of craftsmen, without the class snobbery", described "painting and sculpture rising to heaven out of the hands of a million craftsmen, the crystal symbol of the new faith of the future." By 1923, however, Gropius was no longer evoking images of soaringRomanesque cathedrals and the craft-driven aesthetic of the "Völkisch movement", instead declaring "we want an architecture adapted to our world of machines, radios and fast cars."[19] Gropius argued that a new period of history had begun with the end of the war. He wanted to create a new architectural style to reflect this new era. His style in architecture and consumer goods was to be functional, cheap and consistent with mass production. To these ends, Gropius wanted to reunite art and craft to arrive at high-end functional products with artistic merit. The Bauhaus issued a magazine calledBauhaus and a series of books called "Bauhausbücher". Since the Weimar Republic lacked the number of raw materials available to the United States and Great Britain, it had to rely on the proficiency of a skilled labour force and an ability to export innovative and high-quality goods. Therefore, designers were needed and so was a new type of art education. The school's philosophy stated that the artist should be trained to work with the industry.[20][21]
Weimar was in the German state ofThuringia, and the Bauhaus school received state support from theSocial Democrat-controlled Thuringian state government. The school in Weimar experienced political pressure from conservative circles in Thuringian politics, increasingly so after 1923 as political tension rose. One condition placed on the Bauhaus in this new political environment was the exhibition of work undertaken at the school. This condition was met in 1923 with the Bauhaus' exhibition of the experimentalHaus am Horn.[22] The Ministry of Education placed the staff on six-month contracts and cut the school's funding in half. The Bauhaus issued a press release on 26 December 1924, setting the closure of the school for the end of March 1925.[23][24] At this point it had already been looking for alternative sources of funding. After the Bauhaus moved to Dessau, a school of industrial design with teachers and staff less antagonistic to the conservative political regime remained in Weimar. This school was eventually known as the Technical University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, and in 1996 changed its name toBauhaus-University Weimar.
The Bauhaus moved toDessau in 1925 and new facilities there were inaugurated in late 1926. Gropius's design for the Dessau facilities was a return to the futuristic Gropius of 1914 that had more in common with theInternational style lines of theFagus Factory than the stripped downNeo-classical of the Werkbund pavilion or theVölkisch Sommerfeld House.[25] During the Dessau years, there was a remarkable change in direction for the school. According to Elaine Hoffman, Gropius had approached the Dutch architectMart Stam to run the newly founded architecture program, and when Stam declined the position, Gropius turned to Stam's friend and colleague in the ABC group, Hannes Meyer.
Meyer became director when Gropius resigned in February 1928,[1] and brought the Bauhaus its two most significant building commissions, both of which still exist: five apartment buildings in the city of Dessau, and theBundesschule des Allgemeinen Deutschen Gewerkschaftsbundes (ADGB Trade Union School) inBernau bei Berlin. Meyer favoured measurements and calculations in his presentations to clients, along with the use of off-the-shelf architectural components to reduce costs. This approach proved attractive to potential clients. The school turned its first profit under his leadership in 1929.
But Meyer also generated a great deal of conflict. As a radical functionalist, he had no patience with the aesthetic program and forced the resignations ofHerbert Bayer,Marcel Breuer, and other long-time instructors. Even though Meyer shifted the orientation of the school further to the left than it had been under Gropius, he didn't want the school to become a tool of left-wing party politics. He prevented the formation of a student communist cell, and in the increasingly dangerous political atmosphere, this became a threat to the existence of the Dessau school. Dessau mayor Fritz Hesse fired him in the summer of 1930.[26] The Dessau city council attempted to convince Gropius to return as head of the school, but Gropius instead suggestedLudwig Mies van der Rohe. Mies was appointed in 1930 and immediately interviewed each student, dismissing those that he deemed uncommitted. He halted the school's manufacture of goods so that the school could focus on teaching, and appointed no new faculty other than his close confidantLilly Reich. By 1931, theNazi Party was becoming more influential in German politics. When it gained control of the Dessau city council, it moved to close the school.[27]
In late 1932, Mies rented a derelict factory in Berlin (Birkbusch Street 49) to use as the new Bauhaus with his own money. The students and faculty rehabilitated the building, painting the interior white. The school operated for ten months without further interference from the Nazi Party. In 1933, theGestapo closed down the Berlin school. Mies protested the decision, eventually speaking to the head of the Gestapo, who agreed to allow the school to re-open. However, shortly after receiving a letter permitting the opening of the Bauhaus, Mies and the other faculty agreed to voluntarily shut down the school.[when?][27]
Although neither the Nazi Party norAdolf Hitler had a cohesive architectural policy before they came to power in 1933, Nazi writers likeWilhelm Frick andAlfred Rosenberg had already labelled the Bauhaus "un-German" and criticized its modernist styles, deliberately generating public controversy over issues like flat roofs. Increasingly through the early 1930s, they characterized the Bauhaus as a front for communists and social liberals. Indeed, when Meyer was fired in 1930, a number of communist students loyal to him moved to theSoviet Union.
Even before the Nazis came to power, political pressure on Bauhaus had increased. The Nazi movement, from nearly the start, denounced the Bauhaus for its "degenerate art", and the Nazi regime was determined to crack down on what it saw as the foreign, probably Jewish, influences of "cosmopolitan modernism".[1] Despite Gropius's protestations that as a war veteran and a patriot his work had no subversive political intent, the Berlin Bauhaus was pressured to close in April 1933.
Mies emigrated to the United States to assume the directorship of the School of Architecture at the Armour Institute (nowIllinois Institute of Technology) in Chicago, and to seek building commissions.[a] The simple engineering-oriented functionalism of stripped-down modernism, however, did lead to some Bauhaus influences living on inNazi Germany. When Hitler's chief engineer,Fritz Todt, began opening the newautobahns (highways) in 1935, many of the bridges and service stations were "bold examples of modernism", and among those submitting designs was Mies van der Rohe.[30] Emigrants did succeed, however, in spreading the concepts of the Bauhaus to other countries, including the "New Bauhaus" of Chicago:[31]
The paradox of the early Bauhaus was that, although its manifesto proclaimed that the aim of all creative activity was building,[32] the school did not offer classes in architecture until 1927. During the years under Gropius (1919–1927), he and his partnerAdolf Meyer observed no real distinction between the output of his architectural office and the school. The built output of Bauhaus architecture in these years is the output of Gropius: the Sommerfeld house in Berlin, the Otte house in Berlin, the Auerbach house inJena, and the competition design for theChicago Tribune Tower, which brought the school much attention. The definitive 1926 Bauhaus building in Dessau is also attributed to Gropius. Apart from contributions to the 1923Haus am Horn, student architectural work amounted to un-built projects, interior finishes, and craft work like cabinets, chairs and pottery.
In the next two years under Meyer, the architectural focus shifted away from aesthetics and towards functionality. There were major commissions: one from the city of Dessau for five tightly designed "Laubenganghäuser" (apartment buildings with balcony access), which are still in use today, and another for theBundesschule des Allgemeinen Deutschen Gewerkschaftsbundes (ADGB Trade Union School) inBernau bei Berlin. Meyer's approach was to research users' needs and scientifically develop the design solution. He intended to place emphasis on Gropius' objective analysis of the properties determining an object's use value, known asWesensforschung. Gropius believed that it was possible to design exemplary products of universal validity that should be standardized.[33]
Mies van der Rohe repudiated Meyer's politics, his supporters, and his architectural approach. As opposed to Gropius's "study of essentials", and Meyer's research into user requirements, Mies advocated a "spatial implementation of intellectual decisions", which effectively meant an adoption of his own aesthetics. Neither Mies van der Rohe nor his Bauhaus students saw any projects built during the 1930s.
The Bauhaus movement was not focused on developing worker housing. Only two projects, the apartment building project in Dessau and the Törten row housing fall into the worker housing category. It was the Bauhaus contemporariesBruno Taut,Hans Poelzig and particularlyErnst May, as the city architects of Berlin,Dresden andFrankfurt respectively, who are rightfully credited with the thousands of socially progressive housing units built inWeimar Germany. The housing Taut built in south-west Berlin during the 1920s, close to the U-Bahn stopOnkel Toms Hütte, is still occupied.
The Bauhaus had a major impact on art and architecture trends in Western Europe, Canada, the United States andIsrael in the decades following its demise, as many of the artists involved fled, or were exiled by the Nazi regime. In 1996, four of the major sites associated with Bauhaus in Germany were inscribed on theUNESCOWorld Heritage List (with two more added in 2017).[34]
In 1928, the Hungarian painterAlexander Bortnyik founded a school of design inBudapest called Műhely,[35] which means "the studio".[36] Located on the seventh floor of a house on Nagymezo Street,[36] it was meant to be the Hungarian equivalent to the Bauhaus.[37] The literature sometimes refers to it—in an oversimplified manner—as "the Budapest Bauhaus".[38] Bortnyik was a great admirer ofLászló Moholy-Nagy and had met Walter Gropius in Weimar between 1923 and 1925.[39] Moholy-Nagy himself taught at the Műhely.Victor Vasarely, a pioneer ofop art, studied at this school before establishing in Paris in 1930.[40]
Walter Gropius,Marcel Breuer, and Moholy-Nagy re-assembled in Britain during the mid-1930s and lived and worked in theIsokon housing development in Lawn Road in London before the war caught up with them. Gropius and Breuer went on to teach at theHarvard Graduate School of Design and worked together before their professional split. Their collaboration produced, among other projects, theAluminum City Terrace in New Kensington, Pennsylvania and theAlan I W Frank House in Pittsburgh. The Harvard School was enormously influential in America in the late 1920s and early 1930s, producing such students asPhilip Johnson,I. M. Pei,Lawrence Halprin andPaul Rudolph, among many others.
In the late 1930s,Mies van der Rohe re-settled in Chicago, enjoyed the sponsorship of the influentialPhilip Johnson, and became one of the world's pre-eminent architects. Moholy-Nagy also went to Chicago and founded theNew Bauhaus school under the sponsorship of industrialist and philanthropistWalter Paepcke. This school became theInstitute of Design, part of theIllinois Institute of Technology. Printmaker and painterWerner Drewes was also largely responsible for bringing the Bauhaus aesthetic to America and taught at bothColumbia University andWashington University in St. Louis.Herbert Bayer, sponsored by Paepcke, moved toAspen, Colorado in support of Paepcke's Aspen projects at theAspen Institute. In 1953,Max Bill, together withInge Aicher-Scholl andOtl Aicher, founded theUlm School of Design (German: Hochschule für Gestaltung – HfG Ulm) in Ulm, Germany, a design school in the tradition of the Bauhaus. The school is notable for its inclusion ofsemiotics as a field of study. The school closed in 1968, but the "Ulm Model" concept continues to influence international design education.[41] Another series of projects at the school were theBauhaus typefaces, mostly realized in the decades afterward.
The influence of the Bauhaus on design education was significant. One of the main objectives of the Bauhaus was to unify art, craft, and technology, and this approach was incorporated into the curriculum of the Bauhaus. The structure of the BauhausVorkurs (preliminary course) reflected a pragmatic approach to integrating theory and application. In their first year, students learnt the basic elements and principles of design and colour theory, and experimented with a range of materials and processes.[42][43] This approach to design education became a common feature of architectural and design school in many countries. For example, the Shillito Design School in Sydney stands as a unique link between Australia and the Bauhaus. The colour and design syllabus of the Shillito Design School was firmly underpinned by the theories and ideologies of the Bauhaus. Its first year foundational course mimicked theVorkurs and focused on the elements and principles of design plus colour theory and application. The founder of the school, Phyllis Shillito, which opened in 1962 and closed in 1980, firmly believed that "A student who has mastered the basic principles of design, can design anything from a dress to a kitchen stove".[44] In Britain, largely under the influence of painter and teacher William Johnstone, Basic Design, a Bauhaus-influenced art foundation course, was introduced at Camberwell School of Art and the Central School of Art and Design, whence it spread to all art schools in the country, becoming universal by the early 1960s.
One of the most important contributions of the Bauhaus is in the field ofmodern furniture design. The characteristicCantilever chair andWassily Chair designed byMarcel Breuer are two examples. (Breuer eventually lost a legal battle in Germany with Dutch architect/designerMart Stam over patent rights to the cantilever chair design. Although Stam had worked on the design of the Bauhaus's 1923 exhibit in Weimar, and guest-lectured at the Bauhaus later in the 1920s, he was not formally associated with the school, and he and Breuer had worked independently on the cantilever concept, leading to the patent dispute.) The most profitable product of the Bauhaus was its wallpaper.
The physical plant at Dessau survivedWorld War II and was operated as a design school with some architectural facilities by theGerman Democratic Republic. This included live stage productions in the Bauhaus theater under the name ofBauhausbühne ("Bauhaus Stage"). AfterGerman reunification, a reorganized school continued in the same building, with no essential continuity with the Bauhaus under Gropius in the early 1920s.[45] In 1979 Bauhaus-Dessau College started to organize postgraduate programs with participants from all over the world. This effort has been supported by the Bauhaus-Dessau Foundation which was founded in 1974 as a public institution.
Later evaluation of the Bauhaus design credo was critical of its flawed recognition of the human element, an acknowledgment of "the dated, unattractive aspects of the Bauhaus as a projection of utopia marked by mechanistic views of human nature…Home hygiene without home atmosphere."[46]
Subsequent examples which have continued the philosophy of the Bauhaus includeBlack Mountain College, Hochschule für Gestaltung in Ulm and Domaine de Boisbuchet.[47]
A Bauhaus-style building with "thermometer" windows on Pines Street inTel Aviv
The White City (Hebrew: העיר הלבנה), refers to a collection of over 4,000 buildings built in the Bauhaus orInternational Style inTel Aviv from the 1930s byGerman Jewish architects who emigrated to theBritish Mandate of Palestine after the rise of theNazis. Tel Aviv has the largest number of buildings in the Bauhaus/International Style of any city in the world. Preservation, documentation, and exhibitions have brought attention to Tel Aviv's collection of 1930s architecture. In 2003, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) proclaimed Tel Aviv'sWhite City aWorld Cultural Heritage site, as "an outstanding example of new town planning and architecture in the early 20th century."[48] The citation recognized the unique adaptation of modern international architectural trends to the cultural, climatic, and local traditions of the city.Bauhaus Center Tel Aviv organizes regular architectural tours of the city, and theBauhaus Foundation offers Bauhaus exhibits.[49]
Sotsmisto, a residential neighborhood built in 1930s inZaporizhzhia,Ukraine, was strongly influenced by Bauhaus. This neighborhood was among the first Soviet projects of a functional part of a modernized industrial city, and demonstrates the impact of Bauhaus on the development ofearly Soviet architecture as a whole.[50]
As the centenary of the founding of Bauhaus, several events, festivals, and exhibitions were held around the world in 2019.[51] The international opening festival at theBerlin Academy of the Arts from 16 to 24 January concentrated on "the presentation and production of pieces by contemporary artists, in which the aesthetic issues and experimental configurations of the Bauhaus artists continue to be inspiringly contagious".[52][53]Original Bauhaus, The Centenary Exhibition at the Berlinische Galerie (6 September 2019 to 27 January 2020) presented 1,000 original artefacts from the Bauhaus-Archive's collection and recounted the history behind the objects.[54] TheBauhaus Museum Dessau also opened in September 2019,[55] operated by theBauhaus Dessau Foundation and funded by the State of Saxony-Anhalt and the German Federal government.[56] It is set to be the permanent home of the second-largest Bauhaus collection at 49,000 objects,[55][57] while paying homage to its strong influence in the city when the Bauhaus arrived in 1925.[58]
In 2024, the German far-right partyAlternative for Germany (AfD) sought to attack celebrations of the Bauhaus because of their view that the Bauhaus did not follow tradition. The Bauhaus was also crushed by the Nazis before World War II, and according to political scientist Jan-Werner Mueller, AfD's condemnation seeks to use it in aculture war of far right-wing provocation.[59]
In September 2020, President of theEuropean CommissionUrsula von der Leyen introduced the New European Bauhaus (NEB) initiative during her State of the Union address. The NEB is a creative and interdisciplinary movement that connects the European Green Deal to everyday life. It is a platform for experimentation aiming to unite citizens, experts, businesses and institutions in imagining and designing a sustainable, aesthetic and inclusive future.
Sport and physical activity were an essential part of the original Bauhaus approach. Hannes Meyer, the second director of Bauhaus Dessau, ensured that one day a week was solely devoted to sport and gymnastics. 1 In 1930, Meyer employed two physical education teachers. The Bauhaus school even applied for public funds to enhance its playing field. The inclusion of sport and physical activity in the Bauhaus curriculum had various purposes. First, as Meyer put it, sport combatted a “one-sided emphasis on brainwork.”[60] In addition, Bauhaus instructors believed that students could better express themselves if they actively experienced the space, rhythms and movements of the body. The Bauhaus approach also considered physical activity an important contributor to wellbeing and community spirit. Sport and physical activity were essential to the interdisciplinary Bauhaus movement that developed revolutionary ideas and continues to shape our environments today.
^Barnes, Rachel (2001).The 20th-Century art book (Reprinted. ed.). London: Phaidon Press.ISBN978-0-7148-3542-6.
^Routledge international handbook of participatory design. Jesper Simonsen, Toni Robertson. New York: Routledge. 2013. p. 38.ISBN978-0-415-69440-7.OCLC754734489.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^Uhrig, Nicole (2020).Zukunftsfähige Perspektiven in der Landschaftsarchitektur für Gartenstädte: City – Country – Life. Wiesbaden: Springer-Verlag. p. 113.ISBN978-3-658-28940-9.
^Gorman, Carma (2003).The Industrial Design Reader. New York: Allworth Press. p. 98.ISBN1-58115-310-4.
^Pevsner, Nikolaus, ed. (1999).A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (Paperback). Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh (5th ed.). Penguin Books. p. 44.ISBN978-0-19-860678-9.
^abFrampton, Kenneth (1992). "The Bauhaus: Evolution of an Idea 1919–32".Modern Architecture: A Critical History (3rd ed. rev. ed.). New York: Thames and Hudson, Inc. p. 124.ISBN978-0-500-20257-9.
^Whitford, Frank, ed. (1992).The Bauhaus: Masters & Students by Themselves. London: Conran Octopus. p. 32.ISBN978-1-85029-415-3.He invented the name 'Bauhaus' not only because it specifically referred to Bauen ('building', 'construction')—but also because of its similarity to the word Bauhütte, the medieval guild of builders and stonemasons out of which Freemasonry sprang. The Bauhaus was to be a kind of modern Bauhütte, therefore, in which craftsmen would work on common projects together, the greatest of which would be buildings in which the arts and crafts would be combined.
^Curtis, William (1987). "Walter Gropius, German Expressionism, and the Bauhaus".Modern Architecture Since 1900 (2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall. pp. 309–316.ISBN978-0-13-586694-8.
^"The Bauhaus, 1919–1933".The MET. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. August 2007. Retrieved14 June 2016.
^"Bauhaus".Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved14 June 2016.
^Ackermann et al.,Bauhaus (Cologne: Könemann, 1999), 406.
^Curtis, William (2000). "Walter Gropius, German Expressionism, and the Bauhaus".Modern Architecture Since 1900 (2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall. p. 120.ISBN978-0-13-586694-8.
^Edward Lucie-Smith,Late Modern: The Visual Arts Since 1945, London: Thames & Hudson, 1976, p. 164.
^abGaston Diehl,Vasarely, New York: Crown, 1972, p. 12
^Jean Luc Daval,History of Abstract Painting, Paris: Hazan, 1989, p. 199.
^See: William Chapin Seitz, Marla Price,Art in the Age of Aquarius, Smithsonian Inst Press, 1992, p. 92; Edward Lucie-Smith,Late Modern: The Visual Arts Since 1945, London: Thames & Hudson, 1976, p. 164; Jean Louis Ferrier, Yann Le Pichon, Art of our century: the story of western art, 1900 to the present 1990, London : Longman, p. 521.
^Guitemie Maldonaldo, "Une réception différée et relayée. L'Atelier d'art abstrait et le "modèle-Bauhaus", 1950–1953", in: Martin Schieder, Isabelle Ewig,In die Freiheit geworfen: Positionen zur deutsch-französischen Kunstgeschichte nach 1945, Oldenbourg Verlag, 22 November 2006, p. 100.
^Jean Louis Ferrier, Yann Le Pichon,Art of Our Century: The Story of Western Art, 1900 to the Present, 1990, London: Longman, p. 521.
Stefan Boness (2012).Tel Aviv – The White City. Berlin: Jovis.ISBN978-3-939633-75-4.
Magdalena Droste, Peter Gossel, ed. (2005).Bauhaus. Taschen America LLC.ISBN3-8228-3649-4.
Marty Bax (1991).Bauhaus Lecture Notes 1930–1933. Theory and practice of architectural training at the Bauhaus, based on the lecture notes made by the Dutch ex-Bauhaus student and architect J.J. van der Linden of the Mies van der Rohe curriculum. Amsterdam: Architectura & Natura.ISBN90-71570-04-5.
Anja Baumhoff (2001).The Gendered World of the Bauhaus. The Politics of Power at the Weimar Republic's Premier Art Institute, 1919–1931. Frankfurt, New York: Peter Lang.ISBN3-631-37945-5.
Boris Friedewald (2009).Bauhaus. Munich, London, New York: Prestel.ISBN978-3-7913-4200-9.
Catherine Weill-Rochant (2008). Rita H. Gans (ed.).Bauhaus: Architektur in Tel Aviv (in French and German). Zurich: Kiriat Yearim.
Catherine Weill-Rochant (April 2009).The Tel-Aviv School : a constrained rationalism. DOCOMOMO journal (Documentation and conservation of buildings, sites and neighbourhoods of the modern movement).
_(3925088681).jpg)
![Tea infuser by Otto Rittweger, Josef Knau [de], and Wolfgang Tümpel [de] (1924)](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMarianne-brandt.jpg)
![Children's chair by Heinrich Neuy [de] (1930)](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHeinrich_Neu_Kinderstuhl_1930.jpg)
