| Battle of the Trench | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theMuslim–Quraysh War | |||||||
 Map of the Battle of the Trench | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
TheFirst Islamic State including | Confederates including
| ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Muhammad Ali Ibn Abi Talib Salman the Persian 'Ubadah ibn al-Samit[6] Sa'd ibn Mu'adh (WIA) | Abu Sufyan Amr ibn Abd al-Wud † Tulayha Uyayna ibn Hisn | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 3,000[7] | 10,000 7,500 (Watt's estimate)[8] | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 5[9] – 6[10][11] | 3[10][11] | ||||||
  Location within Saudi Arabia | |||||||
TheBattle of the Trench (Arabic:غزوة الخندق,romanized: Ghazwat al-Khandaq), also known as theBattle of Khandaq (Arabic:معركة الخندق,romanized: Ma’rakah al-Khandaq) and theBattle of the Confederates (Arabic:غزوة الاحزاب,romanized: Ghazwat al-Ahzab), was part of theconflict between the Muslims and the Quraysh. TheQuraysh advanced towards theMuslims, who defended themselves inMedina by digging a trench around their settlement at the suggestion ofSalman the Persian.[12] The battle took place in 627 and lasted around two weeks,[11] resulting in five to six casualties reported by the Muslim, and three casualties amongst the Quraysh.[10][11][9]
The Quraysh decided to instigate, but they soon realised that they had little military capability as they were merchants. This prompted them to negotiate with theBedouins in order to get them to join the campaign.[4] TheBanu Nadir, whom Muhammad had previously expelled from Medina, were also part of this effort and offered the Bedouins half of their crops inKhaybar to persuade them to participate.[13] They reported to have gathered a confederate force of between 7,500 and 10,000 men, includingBanu Ghatafan,Banu Sulaym, andBanu Asad.[8]
Muhammad, having learned of the impending Quraysh advance, took the advice of Salman the Persian to have his followers make a deep trench to impede the opponent's movement.[12][14] When the Quraysh approached, they were unfamiliar with this tactic and struggled to get beyond the trench.[12] Muhammad used the time to negotiate secretly with the Banu Ghatafan, sowing distrust among his opponents. After about two weeks, the weather deteriorated and the invading party withdrew.[4]
Consequently, the Muslims besieged the Qurayza, and upon the latter'sunconditional surrender, its men were killed and women and children enslaved. The battle caused the Meccans to lose their trade toSyria and much of their prestige.[5]
The battle is named after the "Trench", orkhandaq, that was dug by Muslims in preparation for the battle as an act of defense. The wordkhandaq (خَندَق) is theArabised form of theMiddle Persian wordkandag (کندگ; meaning "that which has been dug").[15] Salman the Persian advised Muhammad to dig a trench around the city. The battle is also referred to as theBattle of Confederates (غزوة الاحزاب). TheQur'an uses the termconfederates (الاحزاب) inSurah Al-Ahzab33:9-32 to denote the confederacy of non-believers and Jews against Islam.[16]
After theirexpulsion from Mecca, the Muslims fought the MeccanQuraysh at theBattle of Badr in 624, and at theBattle of Uhud in 625. Although the Muslims were defeated at the Battle of Uhud, their strength was gradually growing. In April 626 Muhammad raised a force of 300 men and 10 horses to meet theQuraysh army of 1,000 atBadr, where the latter had threatened to attack. Although no fighting occurred, the coastal tribes were impressed with Muslim power. Muhammad also tried, with limited success, to break up many confederacies against Muslims. Nevertheless, he was unable to prevent the Meccan one.[17]
Early in 627, theBanu Nadir met with the Quraysh.Huyayy ibn Akhtab, along with other leaders fromKhaybar, traveled to swear allegiance with the Quraysh at Mecca.[18]
The Banu Nadir began rousing the nomads ofNajd. The Nadir enlisted theBanu Ghatafan by paying them half of their harvest.[15][17] This contingent, the second-largest, added a strength of about 2,000 men and 300 horsemen led by Unaina bin Hasan Fazari. TheBanu Assad also agreed to join, led by Tulayha.[19] From theBanu Sulaym, the Nadir secured 700 men, though this force would likely have been much larger had not some of its leaders been sympathetic towards Islam. TheBanu Amir, who had a pact with Muhammad, refused to join.[18]
Other tribes included theBanu Murra, with 400 men led by Hars ibn Auf Murri, and theBanu Shuja, with 700 men led by Sufyan ibn Abd Shams. In total, the strength of the Confederate armies, though not agreed upon by scholars, is estimated to have included around 10,000 men and six hundred horsemen. In December 626 the army, which was led by Abu Sufyan, marched on Medina.[7]
In accordance with the plan, the armies began marching towardsMedina, Meccans from the south (along the coast), and the others from the east. At the same time, horsemen from theBanu Khuza'a left to warn Medina of the invading army.[20]
The men from Banu Khuza'a reachedMuhammad in four days, warning him of the Confederate armies that were to arrive in a week. Muhammad gathered the Medinans to discuss the best strategy of overcoming the enemy. Meeting the enemy in the open (which led tovictory at Badr), and waiting for them inside the city (a lesson learned from thedefeat at Uhud) were both suggested.[21] Ultimately, the outnumbered Muslims opted to engage in a defensive battle by digging deep trenches to act as a barrier. Since Medina already possessed numerous fortress-like houses and rocks in its surroundings, acting as a natural defense, the trench was only dug at certain places. The longest continuous stretch was made on the northern front.[20]
The tactic of a defensive trench was introduced by Salman the Persian. Every capableMuslim in Medina including Muhammad contributed to digging the massive trench in six days.[22] The ditch was dug on the northern side only, as the rest of Medina was surrounded by rocky mountains and trees, impenetrable to large armies (especially cavalry). The digging of the ditch coincided with a near-famine in Medina. Women and children were moved to the inner city.[15][23] The Medinans harvested all their crops early, so the Confederate armies would have to rely on their own food reserves.[21][23]
Muhammad established his military headquarters at the hillock of Sala' and the army was arrayed there;[15] this position would give the Muslims an advantage if the enemy crossed the trench.[17]
The final army that defended the city from the invasion consisted of 3,000 men,[24] and included all inhabitants of Medina over the age of 14, except the Banu Qurayza (the Qurayza did, however, supply the Muslims with some instruments for digging the trench).[25][26][27][17]
According toIrfan Shahid, the Muslims adopted the tactic of using trenches from the Persians, possibly via theGhassanid Arabs who saw their king killed at theBattle of Thannuris in 527 by this tactic. The adopting is reflected in the Arabic word for this battle,khandaq (خندق), which is a borrowing viaAramaic fromPahlavikandak.[28]
The siege of Medina began in January 627 and lasted for 20 nights.[29][30] Adding in the six days of trench-building, the entire operation lasted 27 days[29] and was contained within a single month (5 Shawwal-1 Dhu al-Qi'dah).[31] Since sieges were uncommon in Arabian warfare, the arriving Confederates were unprepared to deal with the trenches dug by the Muslims. The Confederates tried to attack with horsemen in hopes of forcing a passage, but the Medinans were rigidly entrenched, preventing such a crossing.[5] Both of the armies gathered on either side of the trench and spent two or three weeks exchanging insults in prose and verse, backed up with arrows fired from a comfortable distance. According to Rodinson, there were three dead among the attackers and five among the defenders. On the other hand, the harvest had been gathered and the besiegers had some trouble finding food for their horses, which proved of no use to them in the attack.[32]
The Confederate army made several other attempts to cross the trench during the night but repeatedly failed. Although the confederates could have deployed their infantry over the whole length of the trench, they were unwilling to engage the Muslims at the close-quarter as the former regarded the latter as superior in hand-to-hand fighting.[5] As the Muslim army was well dug-in behind the embankment made from the earth which had been taken from the ditch and prepared to bombard attackers with stones and arrows, any attack could cause great casualties.[32]
The Confederates attempted several simultaneous attacks, in particular by trying to persuade the Banu Qurayza to attack the Muslims from the south.[5] From the Confederates,Huyayy ibn Akhtab, aKhaybarian, the leader of the exiled tribe Banu Nadir, returned to Medina seeking their support against the Muslims.[33]
So far the Banu Qurayza had tried their best to remain neutral,[17] and were very hesitant about joining the Confederates since they had earlier made apact with Muhammad.[34] When Huyayy approached them, their leader refused to allow him entry.[35]
Huyayy eventually managed to enter and persuade them that the Muslims would surely be overwhelmed.[5] The sight of the vast Confederate armies, surging over the land with soldiers and horses as far as the eye could see, swung the Qurayza opinion in the favor of the Confederacy.[35]
News of the Qurayzah's renunciation of the pact with Muhammad leaked out, andUmar promptly informed Muhammad. Such suspicions were reinforced by the movement of enemy troops towards the strongholds of the Qurayza.[21][35] Muhammad became anxious about their conduct,[36] and realised the grave potential danger the Qurayza posed. Because of his pact with the Qurayza, he had not bothered to make defensive preparations along the Muslims' border with the tribe.[34] The Qurayza also possessed weaponry: 1,500swords, 2,000 lances, 300 suits of armour, and 500 shields.[37]
Muhammad sent threeleading Muslims to bring him details of the recent developments. He advised the men to openly declare their findings, should they find the Banu Qurayza to be kind, so as to increase the morale of the Muslim fighters. However, he warned against spreading the news of a possible breach of the pact on the Qurayza's part, so as to avoid any panic within Muslim ranks.[38]
The leaders found that the pact had indeed been renounced and tried in vain to convince the Qurayza to revert by reminding them of the fate of theBanu Nadir andBanu Qaynuqa at the hands of Muhammad.[35] The findings of the leaders were signaled to Muhammad in a metaphor: "Adal and Qarah". Because the people of Adal and Qarah had betrayed the Muslims and killed them at the opportune moment,Maududi believes the metaphor means the Qurayza were thought to be about to do the same.[34]
Muhammad attempted to hide his knowledge of the activities of Banu Qurayza; however, rumors soon spread of a massive assault on the city of Medina from Qurayza's side which severely demoralized the Medinans.[39]
The Muslims found themselves in greater difficulties by day. Food was running short, and nights were colder. The lack of sleep made matters worse.[40] So tense was the situation that, for the first time, the canonical daily prayers were neglected by the Muslim community. Only at night, when the attacks stopped due to darkness, could they resume their regular worship.[39] According toIbn Ishaq, the situation became serious and fear was everywhere.[41]
Immediately after hearing the rumors about the Qurayza, Muhammad had sent 100 men to the inner city for its protection. Later he sent 300 horsemen (cavalry was not needed at the trench) as well to protect the city.[21] The loud voices, in which the troops prayed every night, created the illusion of a large force.[35]
The crisis showed Muhammad that many of his men had reached the limits of their endurance. He sent word to Ghatafan, trying to pay for their defection and offering them a third of Medina's date harvest if they withdrew. Although the Ghatafan demanded half, they eventually agreed to negotiate with Muhammad on those terms. Before Muhammad began the order of drafting the agreement, he consulted the Medinan leaders. They sharply rejected the terms of the agreement,[40] protesting Medina had never sunk to such levels of ignominy. The negotiations were broken off. While the Ghatafan did not retreat they had compromised themselves by entering into negotiations with Medina, and the Confederacy's internal dissension had thereby been increased.[5]
At about that point, Muhammad received a visit fromNuaym ibn Masud, an Arab leader who was well-respected by the entire confederacy, but who had, unknown to them, secretly converted to Islam. Muhammad asked him to end the siege by creating discord amongst Confederates.[42]
Nuaym then came up with an efficient stratagem. He first went to the Banu Qurayza and warned them about the intentions of the rest of the Confederacy. He said that if the siege failed, the Confederacy would not be afraid to abandon the Jews, leaving them at the mercy of Muhammad. The Qurayza should therefore demand Confederate leaders as hostages in return for cooperation. This advice touched upon the fears the Qurayza had already harbored.[21][40]
Next Nuaym went to Abu Sufyan, the Confederate leader, warning him that the Qurayza had defected to Muhammad. He stated that the tribe intended to ask the Confederacy for hostages, ostensibly in return for cooperation, but really to hand over to Muhammad. Thus the Confederacy should not give a single man a hostage. Nuaym repeated the same message to other tribes in the Confederacy.[21][40]
Nuaym's stratagem worked. After consulting, the Confederate leaders sentIkrimah ibn Abi Jahl to the Qurayza, signaling a united invasion of Medina. The Qurayza, however, demanded hostages as a guarantee that the Confederacy would not desert them. The Confederacy, considering that the Qurayza might give the hostage to Muhammad, refused. Messages were repeatedly sent back and forth between the parties, but each held to its position stubbornly.[21][40]
Abu Sufyan summonedHuyayy ibn Akhtab, informing him of Qurayza's response. Huyayy was taken aback, and Abu Sufyan branded him as a "traitor". Fearing for his life, Huyayy fled to the Qurayza's strongholds.[21][40]
The Bedouins, the Ghatafan, and other Confederates from Najd had already been compromised by Muhammad's negotiations. They had taken part in the expedition in hopes of plunder, rather than for personal reasons. They lost hope as chances of success dwindled, uninterested in continuing the siege. The two confederate armies were marked by recriminations and mutual distrust.[40]
The provisions of the Confederate armies were running out. Horses and camels were dying of hunger and wounds. For days the weather had been exceptionally cold and wet. Violent winds blew out the campfires, taking away from the Confederate army their source of heat. The Muslim camp, however, was sheltered from such winds. The enemy's tents were torn up, their fires were extinguished, the sand and rain beat in their faces and they were terrified by the portents against them. They had already well nigh fallen out among themselves. During the night the Confederate armies withdrew, and by morning the ground was cleared of all enemy forces.[43]
Following the retreat of the Confederate army, the Banu Qurayza neighborhoods werebesieged by the Muslims. After a 25-day siege of their neighborhood, the Banu Qurayza unconditionally surrendered. When the Banu Qurayza tribe surrendered, the Muslim army seized their stronghold and their possessions for their acts.[44] On the request of theBanu Aus, who were allied to the Qurayza, Muhammad chose one of them,Sa'ad ibn Mu'adh, as an arbitrator to pronounce judgment upon them. Sa'ad, who later died of his wounds from the battle, decreed the sentence, in which some of the men fighters shall be killed and some of their women and children enslaved. Muhammad approved of this decision, and the next day the sentence was carried out.[44]
The men – numbering between 400 and 900, according toIbn Ishaq[45] – were bound and placed under the custody ofMuhammad ibn Maslamah, while the women and children were placed underAbdullah ibn Salam, a formerrabbi who hadconverted to Islam.[21][46]
A lot of scholars have however cast doubt on ibn Ishaq's account and there is no reliable hadith about the exact number of people killed, leading some to argue only prominent ones were executed. A number of individuals were spared when various Muslims intervened on their behalf.[47] According to Ibn Ishaq's biography of Muhammad, one woman was also beheaded along with the men.[45] Several accounts noteMuhammad's companions as executioners, Umar andZubayr ibn al-Awwam in particular, and that each clan of the Aws was also charged with killing a group of Qurayza men.[48]
Ibn Asakir writes in hisHistory of Damascus that the Banu Kilab, a clan of Arab clients of the Banu Qurayza, were also killed though this is not accepted by the majority of traditional Islamic historians.[49]
The spoils of battle, including the enslaved women and children of the tribe, were divided up among the Muslims that had participated in the siege and among theemigrees from Mecca (who had hitherto depended on the help of theMuslims native to Medina).[50]
As part of his share of the spoils, Muhammad selected one of the women,Rayhana, for himself and took her aspart of his booty.[51] Muhammad offered to free and marry her and according to some sources she accepted his proposal, while according to others she rejected it and remained Muhammad's companion.[52] She is said to have later become a Muslim.[36]
Scholars argue that Muhammad had already decided upon this judgment before the Qurayza's surrender and that Sa'ad was putting his allegiance to the Muslim community above that to his tribe.[5] One reason cited by some for such punishment is that Muhammad's previous clemency towards defeated foes was in contradiction to Arab and Jewish laws of the time, and was seen as a sign of weakness. Others see the punishment as a response to what was perceived as an act of treason by the Qurayza since they betrayed their joint defense pact with Muhammad by giving aid and comfort to the enemies of the Muslims.[21]
The failure of the siege marked the beginning of Muhammad's inevitable ascendency in the city of Medina.[53] The Meccans had exerted their utmost strength to dislodge Muhammad from Medina, and this defeat caused them to lose their trade with Syria and much of their prestige with it. Watt conjectures that the Meccans at this point began to contemplate that conversion to Islam would be the most prudent option.[5]
Apart from being mentioned in the Qur'an,[54] the incident is also found in historical works by writers of the third and fourth century of the Muslim era.[55] These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, and quotes attributed to him (thesira andhadith literature), which provide further information on Muhammad's life.[56] The earliest surviving writtensira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) isIbn Ishaq'sLife of God's Messenger written some 120 to 130 years after Muhammad's death. Although the original work is lost, portions of it survive in the recensions ofIbn Hisham andAl-Tabari.[57] Another early source isthe history of Muhammad's campaigns byal-Waqidi (d. 823).[55]
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) (An abridgement ofMuhammad at Mecca andMuhammad at Medina)
