The Baroque style used contrast, movement, exuberant detail, deep color, grandeur, and surprise to achieve a sense of awe. The style began at the start of the 17th century in Rome, then spread rapidly to the rest of Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal, then to Austria, southern Germany, and Poland. By the 1730s, it had evolved into an even more flamboyant style, calledrocaille orRococo, which appeared in France and Central Europe until the mid to late 18th century. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires including the Iberian Peninsula it continued, together with new styles, until the first decade of the 19th century.
In thedecorative arts, the style employs plentiful and intricate ornamentation. The departure from Renaissance classicism has its own ways in each country. But a general feature is that everywhere the starting point is the ornamental elements introduced by theRenaissance. The classical repertoire is crowded, dense, overlapping, loaded, in order to provoke shock effects. New motifs introduced by Baroque are: thecartouche, trophies and weapons, baskets of fruit or flowers, and others, made inmarquetry,stucco, or carved.[3]
The English wordbaroque comes directly from theFrench. Some scholars state that the French word originated from thePortuguese termbarroco 'a flawed pearl', pointing to theLatinverruca 'wart',[4] or to a word with theRomance suffix-ǒccu (common inpre-Roman Iberia).[5][6] Other sources suggest aMedieval Latin term used in logic,baroco, as the most likely source.[7]
In the 16th century the Medieval Latin wordbaroco moved beyondscholastic logic and came into use to characterise anything that seemed absurdly complex. The French philosopherMichel de Montaigne (1533–1592) helped to give the termbaroco (spelledBarroco by him) the meaning 'bizarre, uselessly complicated'.[8] Other early sources associatebaroco with magic, complexity, confusion, and excess.[7]
The wordbaroque was also associated with irregular pearls before the 18th century. The Frenchbaroque and Portuguesebarroco were terms often associated with jewelry. An example from 1531 uses the term to describe pearls in an inventory ofCharles V of France's treasures.[9] Later, the word appears in a 1694 edition ofLe Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française, which describesbaroque as "only used for pearls that are imperfectly round."[10] A 1728 Portuguese dictionary similarly describesbarroco as relating to a "coarse and uneven pearl".[11]
An alternative derivation of the wordbaroque points to the name of the Italian painterFederico Barocci (1528–1612).[12]
In the 18th century the term began to be used to describe music, and not in a flattering way. In an anonymous satirical review of the première ofJean-Philippe Rameau'sHippolyte et Aricie in October 1733, which was printed in theMercure de France in May 1734, the critic wrote that the novelty in this opera was "du barocque", complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was unsparing with dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.[13]
In 1762Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française recorded that the term could figuratively describe something "irregular, bizarre or unequal".[14]
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and composer as well as a philosopher, wrote in theEncyclopédie in 1768: "Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused, and loaded with modulations and dissonances. The singing is harsh and unnatural, the intonation difficult, and the movement limited. It appears that term comes from the word 'baroco' used by logicians."[8][15]
The French termsstyle baroque andmusique baroque appeared inLe Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française in 1835.[17] By the mid-19th century, art critics and historians had adopted the termbaroque as a way to ridicule post-Renaissance art. This was the sense of the word as used in 1855 by the leading art historianJacob Burckhardt, who wrote that baroque artists "despised and abused detail" because they lacked "respect for tradition".[18]
In 1888 the art historianHeinrich Wölfflin published the first serious academic work on the style,Renaissance und Barock, which described the differences between the painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Renaissance and the Baroque.[19]
The Baroque style of architecture was a result of doctrines adopted by theCatholic Church at theCouncil of Trent in 1545–1563, in response to theProtestant Reformation. The first phase of theCounter-Reformation had imposed a severe, academic style on religious architecture, which had appealed to intellectuals but not the mass of churchgoers. The Council of Trent decided instead to appeal to a more popular audience, and declared that the arts should communicate religious themes with direct and emotional involvement.[21][22] Similarly, Lutheran Baroque art developed as a confessional marker of identity, in response to theGreat Iconoclasm ofCalvinists.[23]
Baroque churches were designed with a large central space, where the worshippers could be close to the altar, with a dome or cupola high overhead, allowing light to illuminate the church below. The dome was one of the central symbolic features of Baroque architecture illustrating the union between the heavens and the earth. The inside of the cupola was lavishly decorated with paintings of angels and saints, and with stucco statuettes of angels, giving the impression to those below of looking up at heaven.[24] Another feature of Baroque churches are thequadratura;trompe-l'œil paintings on the ceiling in stucco frames, either real or painted, crowded with paintings of saints and angels and connected by architectural details with the balustrades and consoles.Quadratura paintings ofAtlantes below the cornices appear to be supporting the ceiling of the church. Unlike the painted ceilings ofMichelangelo in theSistine Chapel, which combined different scenes, each with its own perspective, to be looked at one at a time, the Baroque ceiling paintings were carefully created so the viewer on the floor of the church would see the entire ceiling in correct perspective, as if the figures were real.
The interiors of Baroque churches became more and more ornate in the High Baroque, and focused around the altar, usually placed under the dome. The most celebrated baroque decorative works of the High Baroque are theChair of Saint Peter (1647–1653) andSt. Peter's Baldachin (1623–1634), both byGian Lorenzo Bernini, inSt. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The Baldequin of St. Peter is an example of the balance of opposites in Baroque art; the gigantic proportions of the piece, with the apparent lightness of the canopy; and the contrast between the solid twisted columns, bronze, gold and marble of the piece with the flowing draperies of the angels on the canopy.[25] TheDresden Frauenkirche serves as a prominent example of Lutheran Baroque art, which was completed in 1743 after being commissioned by the Lutheran city council of Dresden and was "compared by eighteenth-century observers to St Peter's in Rome".[2]
The twisted column in the interior of churches is one of the signature features of the Baroque. It gives both a sense of motion and also a dramatic new way of reflecting light.
Thecartouche was another characteristic feature of Baroque decoration. These were large plaques carved of marble or stone, usually oval and with a rounded surface, which carried images or text in gilded letters, and were placed as interior decoration or above the doorways of buildings, delivering messages to those below. They showed a wide variety of invention, and were found in all types of buildings, from cathedrals and palaces to small chapels.[26]
Baroque architects sometimes usedforced perspective to create illusions. For thePalazzo Spada in Rome,Francesco Borromini used columns of diminishing size, a narrowing floor and a miniature statue in the garden beyond to create the illusion that a passageway was thirty meters long, when it was actually only seven meters long. A statue at the end of the passage appears to be life-size, though it is only sixty centimeters high. Borromini designed the illusion with the assistance of a mathematician.
The first building in Rome to have a Baroque façade was theChurch of the Gesù in 1584; it was plain by later Baroque standards, but marked a break with the traditional Renaissance façades that preceded it. The interior of this church remained very austere until the high Baroque, when it was lavishly ornamented.
In Rome in 1605,Paul V became the first of series ofpopes who commissioned basilicas and church buildings designed to inspire emotion and awe through a proliferation of forms, and a richness of colours and dramatic effects.[31] Among the most influential monuments of the Early Baroque were the façade ofSt. Peter's Basilica (1606–1619), and the new nave and loggia which connected the façade to Michelangelo's dome in the earlier church. The new design created a dramatic contrast between the soaring dome and the disproportionately wide façade, and the contrast on the façade itself between theDoric columns and the great mass of the portico.[32]
In the mid to late 17th century the style reached its peak, later termed the High Baroque. Many monumental works were commissioned by PopesUrban VIII andAlexander VII. The sculptor and architectGian Lorenzo Bernini designed a new quadruple colonnade aroundSt. Peter's Square (1656 to 1667). The three galleries of columns in a giant ellipse balance the oversize dome and give the Church and square a unity and the feeling of a giant theatre.[33]
Another major innovator of the Italian High Baroque wasFrancesco Borromini, whose major work was theChurch of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane or Saint Charles of the Four Fountains (1634–1646). The sense of movement is given not by the decoration, but by the walls themselves, which undulate and by concave and convex elements, including an oval tower and balcony inserted into a concave traverse. The interior was equally revolutionary; the main space of the church was oval, beneath an oval dome.[33]
Painted ceilings, crowded with angels and saints and trompe-l'œil architectural effects, were an important feature of the Italian High Baroque. Major works includedThe Entry of Saint Ignatius into Paradise byAndrea Pozzo (1685–1695) in theSant'Ignazio Church, Rome, andThe Triumph of the Name of Jesus byGiovanni Battista Gaulli in the Church of the Gesù in Rome (1669–1683), which featured figures spilling out of the picture frame and dramatic oblique lighting and light-dark contrasts.[34]
The Catholic Church in Spain, and particularly theJesuits, were the driving force of Spanish Baroque architecture. The first major work in this style was the San Isidro Chapel inMadrid, begun in 1643 byPedro de la Torre. It contrasted an extreme richness of ornament on the exterior with simplicity in the interior, divided into multiple spaces and using effects of light to create a sense of mystery.[38] TheSantiago de Compostela Cathedral was modernized with a series of Baroque additions beginning at the end of the 17th century, starting with a highly ornate bell tower (1680), then flanked by two even taller and more ornate towers, called theObradorio, added between 1738 and 1750 byFernando de Casas Novoa. Another landmark of the Spanish Baroque is the chapel tower of thePalace of San Telmo inSeville byLeonardo de Figueroa.[39]
Granada had only been conquered from the Moors in the 15th century, and had its own distinct variety of Baroque. The painter, sculptor and architectAlonso Cano designed the Baroque interior ofGranada Cathedral between 1652 and his death in 1657. It features dramatic contrasts of the massive white columns and gold decor.
The most ornamental and lavishly decorated architecture of the Spanish Baroque is calledChurrigueresque style, named after the brothersChurriguera, who worked primarily inSalamanca and Madrid. Their works include the buildings on Salamanca's main square, thePlaza Mayor (1729).[39] This highly ornamental Baroque style was influential in many churches and cathedrals built by the Spanish in the Americas.
The architects of the Spanish Baroque had an effect far beyond Spain; their work was highly influential in the churches built in the Spanish colonies in Latin America and the Philippines. The church built by theJesuits for theCollege of San Francisco Javier inTepotzotlán, with its ornate Baroque façade and tower, is a good example.[40]
From 1680 to 1750, many highly ornate cathedrals, abbeys, andpilgrimage churches were built in Central Europe, Austria, Bohemia and southwestern Poland. Some were inRococo style, a distinct, more flamboyant and asymmetric style which emerged from the Baroque, then replaced it in Central Europe in the first half of the 18th century, until it was replaced in turn by classicism.[47]
The princes of the multitude of states in that region also chose Baroque or Rococo for their palaces and residences, and often used Italian-trained architects to construct them.[48]
A notable example is theSt. Nicholas Church (Malá Strana) in Prague (1704–1755), built byChristoph Dientzenhofer and his sonKilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer. Decoration covers all of walls of interior of the church. The altar is placed in the nave beneath the central dome, and surrounded by chapels, light comes down from the dome above and from the surrounding chapels. The altar is entirely surrounded by arches, columns, curved balustrades and pilasters of coloured stone, which are richly decorated with statuary, creating a deliberate confusion between the real architecture and the decoration. The architecture is transformed into a theatre of light, colour and movement.[25]
One of the best examples of a rococo church is the Basilika Vierzehnheiligen, orBasilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, a pilgrimage church located near the town ofBad Staffelstein near Bamberg, in Bavaria, southern Germany. The Basilica was designed by Balthasar Neumann and was constructed between 1743 and 1772, its plan a series of interlocking circles around a central oval with the altar placed in the exact centre of the church. The interior of this church illustrates the summit of Rococo decoration.[53]Another notable example of the style is the Pilgrimage Church of Wies (German:Wieskirche). It was designed by the brothersJ. B. andDominikus Zimmermann. It is located in the foothills of theAlps, in the municipality ofSteingaden in theWeilheim-Schongau district, Bavaria, Germany. Construction took place between 1745 and 1754, and the interior was decorated with frescoes and with stuccowork in the tradition of theWessobrunner School. It is now aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site.
Baroque in France developed quite differently from the ornate and dramatic local versions of Baroque from Italy, Spain and the rest of Europe. It appears severe, more detached and restrained by comparison, preemptingNeoclassicism and the architecture of theEnlightenment. Unlike Italian buildings, French Baroque buildings have no broken pediments or curvilinear façades. Even religious buildings avoided the intense spatial drama one finds in the work ofBorromini. The style is closely associated with the works built forLouis XIV (reign 1643–1715), and because of this, it is also known as theLouis XIV style. Louis XIV invited the master of Baroque, Bernini, to submit a design for the neweast wing of the Louvre, but rejected it in favor of a more classical design byClaude Perrault andLouis Le Vau.[65][66]
The main architects of the style includedFrançois Mansart (1598–1666),Pierre Le Muet (Church ofVal-de-Grâce, 1645–1665) andLouis Le Vau (Vaux-le-Vicomte, 1657–1661). Mansart was the first architect to introduce Baroque styling, principally the frequent use of an appliedorder and heavyrustication, into the French architectural vocabulary. Themansard roof was not invented by Mansart, but it has become associated with him, as he used it frequently.[67]
The major royal project of the period was the expansion ofPalace of Versailles, begun in 1661 by Le Vau with decoration by the painterCharles Le Brun. Thegardens were designed byAndré Le Nôtre specifically to complement and amplify the architecture. The Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors), the centerpiece of the château, with paintings by Le Brun, was constructed between 1678 and 1686. Mansart completed theGrand Trianon in 1687. The chapel, designed byRobert de Cotte, was finished in 1710. Following the death of Louis XIV,Louis XV added the more intimatePetit Trianon and the highly ornate theatre. The fountains in the gardens were designed to be seen from the interior, and to add to the dramatic effect. The palace was admired and copied by other monarchs of Europe, particularlyPeter the Great of Russia, who visited Versailles early in the reign of Louis XV, and built his own version atPeterhof Palace near Saint Petersburg, between 1705 and 1725.[68]
Baroque architecture in Portugal lasted about two centuries (the late seventeenth century and eighteenth century). The reigns ofJohn V andJoseph I had increased imports of gold and diamonds, in a period called Royal Absolutism, which allowed the Portuguese Baroque to flourish.
Baroque architecture in Portugal enjoys a special situation and different timeline from the rest of Europe.
It is conditioned by several political, artistic, and economic factors, that originate several phases, and different kinds of outside influences, resulting in a unique blend,[73] often misunderstood by those looking for Italian art, find instead specific forms and character which give it a uniquely Portuguese variety. Another key factor is the existence of the Jesuitical architecture, also called "plain style" (Estilo Chão or Estilo Plano)[74] which like the name evokes, is plainer and appears somewhat austere.
The buildings are single-room basilicas, deep main chapel, lateral chapels (with small doors for communication), without interior and exterior decoration, simple portal and windows. It is a practical building, allowing it to be built throughout the empire with minor adjustments, and prepared to be decorated later or when economic resources are available.
In fact, the first Portuguese Baroque does not lack in building because "plain style" is easy to be transformed, by means of decoration (painting, tiling, etc.), turning empty areas into pompous, elaborate baroque scenarios. The same could be applied to the exterior. Subsequently, it is easy to adapt the building to the taste of the time and place, and add on new features and details. Practical and economical.
With more inhabitants and better economic resources, the north, particularly the areas of Porto andBraga,[75][76][77] witnessed an architectural renewal, visible in the large list of churches, convents and palaces built by the aristocracy.
Tsarskoe Selo, Pushkin, Russia, by Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, 1749–1756[85]
The debut of Russian Baroque, orPetrine Baroque, followed a long visit ofPeter the Great to western Europe in 1697–1698, where he visited the Châteaux ofFontainebleau andVersailles as well as other architectural monuments. He decided, on his return to Russia, to construct similar monuments inSt. Petersburg, which became the new capital of Russia in 1712. Early major monuments in the Petrine Baroque include thePeter and Paul Cathedral andMenshikov Palace.
InMoscow,Naryshkin Baroque became widespread, especially in the architecture ofEastern Orthodox churches in the late 17th century. It was a combination of western European Baroque with traditionalRussian folk styles.
Baroque in the Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Americas
Façade of theJesuit Church of Cusco, Peru, by Jean-Baptiste Gilles and Diego Martínez de Oviedo, 1576–1668[90]
Preserved colonial wall paintings of 1802 depicting Hell,[91][92][93] by Tadeo Escalante, inside the Church of San Juan Bautista inHuaro, Peru
Due to the colonization of the Americas by European countries, the Baroque naturally moved to theNew World, finding especially favorable ground in the regions dominated bySpain andPortugal, both countries being centralized and irreducibly Catholic monarchies, by extension subject to Rome and adherents of the BaroqueCounter-Reformation. European artists migrated to America and made school, and along with the widespread penetration ofCatholic missionaries, many of whom were skilled artists, created a multiform Baroque often influenced by popular taste. TheCriollo andindigenous crafters did much to give this Baroque unique features. The main centres of American Baroque cultivation, that are still standing, are (in this order)Mexico,Peru,Brazil,Cuba,Ecuador,Colombia,Bolivia,Guatemala,Nicaragua,Puerto Rico andPanama.
Painting inside an 18th-century church in Honduras.
Of particular note is the so-called "Missionary Baroque", developed in the framework of the Spanish reductions in areas extending from Mexico and southwestern portions of current-day United States to as far south as Argentina and Chile, indigenous settlements organized by Spanish Catholic missionaries in order to convert them to the Christian faith and acculturate them in the Western life, forming a hybrid Baroque influenced by Native culture, where flourished Criollos and many indigenous artisans and musicians, even literate, some of great ability and talent of their own. Missionaries' accounts often repeat that Western art, especially music, had a hypnotic impact on foresters, and the images of saints were viewed as having great powers. Many natives were converted, and a new form of devotion was created, of passionate intensity, laden with mysticism, superstition, and theatricality, which delighted in festive masses, sacred concerts, and mysteries.[94][95]
In thePhilippines, which was a Spanish colony for over three centuries, a large number ofBaroque constructions are preserved. Four of these as well as the Baroque and Neoclassical city ofVigan are bothUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites; and although they lack formal classification, TheWalled City of Manila along with the city ofTayabas both contain a significant extent of Spanish-Baroque-era architecture.
Door andpisanie of the Saints Constantine and Helena Church, Horezu Monastery, unknown architect or sculptor, 1692–1694
Maximalist railing of thePotlogi Palace, Potlogi, unknown architect, 1698
Twisting columns and railings of theMogoșoaia Palace, Mogoșoaia, unknown architect, early 18th century[101]
Cartouche on a damaged stone in the courtyard ofAntim Monastery, Bucharest, unknown sculptor, late 17th-early 18th century
As we saw, the Baroque is a Western style, born in Italy. Through the commercial and cultural relationships of Italians with countries of theBalkan Peninsula, includingMoldavia andWallachia, Baroque influences arrive to Eastern Europe. These influences were not very strong, since they usually take place in architecture and stone-sculpted ornaments, and are also mixed intensely with details taken fromByzantine andIslamic art.
Before and after the fall of theByzantine Empire, all the art of Wallachia and Moldavia was primarily influenced by that ofConstantinople. Until the end of the 16th century, with little modifications, the plans of churches and monasteries, the murals, and the ornaments carved in stone remain the same as before. From a period starting with the reigns ofMatei Basarab (1632–1654) andVasile Lupu (1634–1653), which coincided with the popularization of Italian Baroque, new ornaments were added, and the style of religious furniture changed. This was not random at all. Decorative elements and principles were brought from Italy, throughVenice, or through theDalmatian regions, and they were adopted by architects and craftsmen from the east. The window and door frames, thepisanie with dedication, the tombstones, the columns and railings, and a part of the bronze, silver or wooden furniture, received a more important role than the one they had before. They existed before too, inspired by the Byzantine tradition, but they gained a more realist look, showing delicate floral motifs. Therelief that existed before too, became more accentuated, having volume and consistency. Before this period, reliefs from Wallachia and Moldavia, like the ones from the East, had only two levels, at a small distance one from the other, one at the surface and the other in depth. Big flowers, mayberoses,peonies orthistles, thick leaves, ofacanthus or another similar plant, were twisting on columns, or surround door and windows. A place where the Baroque had a strong influence wascolumns and therailings.Capitals were more decorated than before with foliage. Columns have often twisting shafts, a local reinterpretation of theSolomonic column.Maximalist railings are placed between these columns, decorated withrinceaux. Some of the ones from theMogoșoaia Palace are also decorated with dolphins.Cartouches are also used sometimes, mostly on tombstones, like on the one ofConstantin Brâncoveanu. This movement, is known as theBrâncovenesc style, afterConstantin Brâncoveanu, a ruler of Wallachia whose reign (1654–1714) is highly associated with this kind of architecture and design. The style is also present during the 18th century, and in a part of the 19th. Many of the churches and residences erected byboyards andvoivodes of these periods are Brâncovenesc. Although Baroque influences can be clearly seen, the Brâncovenesc style takes much more inspiration from the local tradition.
As the 18th century passed, with thePhanariot (members of prominentGreek families inPhanar, Istanbul) reigns in Wallachia and Moldavia, Baroque influences come from Istanbul too. They came before too, during the 17th century, but with the Phanariots, more Western Baroque motifs that arrived to theOttoman Empire had their final destination in present-day Romania. In Moldavia, Baroque elements come from Russia too, where the influence of Italian art was strong.[102]
Vanitas Still Life; byMaria van Oosterwijck; 1668; oil on canvas; 73 x 88.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum[111]
Baroque painters worked deliberately to set themselves apart from the painters of the Renaissance and the Mannerism period after it. In their palette, they used intense and warm colours, and particularly made use of theprimary colours red, blue and yellow, frequently putting all three in close proximity.[112] They avoided the even lighting of Renaissance painting and used strong contrasts of light and darkness on certain parts of the picture to direct attention to the central actions or figures. In their composition, they avoided the tranquil scenes of Renaissance paintings, and chose the moments of the greatest movement and drama. Unlike the tranquil faces of Renaissance paintings, the faces in Baroque paintings clearly expressed their emotions. They often used asymmetry, with action occurring away from the centre of the picture, and created axes that were neither vertical nor horizontal, but slanting to the left or right, giving a sense of instability and movement. They enhanced this impression of movement by having the costumes of the personages blown by the wind, or moved by their own gestures. The overall impressions were movement, emotion and drama.[113] Another essential element of baroque painting was allegory; every painting told a story and had a message, often encrypted in symbols and allegorical characters, which an educated viewer was expected to know and read.[114]
Early evidence of Italian Baroque ideas in painting occurred in Bologna, whereAnnibale Carracci,Agostino Carracci andLudovico Carracci sought to return the visual arts to the ordered Classicism of the Renaissance. Their art, however, also incorporated ideas central the Counter-Reformation; these included intense emotion and religious imagery that appealed more to the heart than to the intellect.[115]
Peter Paul Rubens was the most important painter of theFlemish Baroque style. Rubens' highly charged compositions reference erudite aspects of classical and Christian history. His unique and immensely popular Baroque style emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality, which followed the immediate, dramatic artistic style promoted in theCounter-Reformation. Rubens specialized in making altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, andhistory paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects.
One important domain of Baroque painting wasQuadratura, or paintings intrompe-l'œil, which literally "fooled the eye". These were usually painted on thestucco of ceilings or upper walls and balustrades, and gave the impression to those on the ground looking up were that they were seeing the heavens populated with crowds of angels, saints and other heavenly figures, set against painted skies and imaginary architecture.[47]
In Italy, artists often collaborated with architects on interior decoration;Pietro da Cortona was one of the painters of the 17th century who employed this illusionist way of painting. Among his most important commissions were the frescoes he painted for thePalazzo Barberini (1633–39), to glorify the reign ofPope Urban VIII. Pietro da Cortona's compositions were the largest decorative frescoes executed in Rome since the work of Michelangelo at theSistine Chapel.[116]
François Boucher was an important figure in the more delicate French Rococo style, which appeared during the late Baroque period. He designed tapestries, carpets and theatre decoration as well as painting. His work was extremely popular withMadame de Pompadour, the Mistress of KingLouis XV. His paintings featured mythological romantic, and mildly erotic themes.[117]
In the 18th century sculptural altarpieces began to be replaced by paintings, developing notably the Baroque painting in the Americas. Similarly, the demand for civil works, mainly portraits of the aristocratic classes and the ecclesiastical hierarchy, grew. The main influence was theMurillesque, and in some cases—as in the criolloCristóbal de Villalpando–that ofJuan de Valdés Leal. The painting of this era has a more sentimental tone, with sweet and softer shapes. Its proponents includeGregorio Vasquez de Arce y Ceballos in Colombia, andJuan Rodríguez Juárez andMiguel Cabrera in Mexico.
The dominant figure in baroque sculpture wasGian Lorenzo Bernini. Under the patronage ofPope Urban VIII, he made a remarkable series of monumental statues of saints and figures whose faces and gestures vividly expressed their emotions, as well as portrait busts of exceptional realism, and highly decorative works for the Vatican such as the imposingChair of St. Peter beneath the dome inSt. Peter's Basilica. In addition, he designed fountains with monumental groups of sculpture to decorate the major squares of Rome.[120]
Baroque sculpture was inspired by ancient Roman statuary, particularly by the famous first century CE statue ofLaocoön and His Sons, which was unearthed in 1506 and put on display in the gallery of the Vatican. When he visited Paris in 1665, Bernini addressed the students at the academy of painting and sculpture. He advised the students to work from classical models, rather than from nature. He told the students, "When I had trouble with my first statue, I consulted theAntinous like an oracle."[121] ThatAntinous statue is known today as theHermes of the Museo Pio-Clementino.
In Spain, the sculptorFrancisco Salzillo worked exclusively on religious themes, using polychromed wood. Some of the finest baroque sculptural craftsmanship was found in the gilded stucco altars of churches of the Spanish colonies of the New World, made by local craftsmen; examples include theChapel del Rosario, Puebla, (Mexico), 1724–1731.
During the first period of the reign of Louis XIV, furniture followed the previousLouis XIII style, and was massive, and profusely decorated with sculpture and gilding. After 1680, thanks in large part to the furniture designerAndré-Charles Boulle, a more original and delicate style appeared, sometimes known asBoulle work. It was based on the inlay ofebony and other rare woods, a technique first used in Florence in the 15th century, which was refined and developed by Boulle and others working for Louis XIV. Furniture was inlaid with plaques of ebony, copper, and exotic woods of different colors.[130]
New and often enduring types of furniture appeared; thecommode, with two to four drawers, replaced the oldcoffre, or chest. Thecanapé, or sofa, appeared, in the form of a combination of two or three armchairs. New kinds of armchairs appeared, including thefauteuil en confessionale or "Confessional armchair", which had padded cushions ions on either side of the back of the chair. The console table also made its first appearance; it was designed to be placed against a wall. Another new type of furniture was thetable à gibier, a marble-topped table for holding dishes. Early varieties of the desk appeared; theMazarin desk had a central section set back, placed between two columns of drawers, with four feet on each column.[130]
The termBaroque is also used to designate the style of music composed during a period that overlaps with that of Baroque art. The first uses of the term 'baroque' for music were criticisms. In an anonymous, satirical review of the première in October 1733 ofJean-Philippe Rameau'sHippolyte et Aricie, printed in theMercure de France in May 1734, the critic implied that the novelty of this opera was "du barocque," complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was filled with unremitting dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.[131]Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and noted composer as well as philosopher, made a very similar observation in 1768 in the famousEncyclopédie ofDenis Diderot: "Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused, and loaded with modulations and dissonances. The singing is harsh and unnatural, the intonation difficult, and the movement limited. It appears that term comes from the word 'baroco' used by logicians."[15]
Common use of the term for the music of the period began only in 1919, byCurt Sachs,[132] and it was not until 1940 that it was first used in English in an article published byManfred Bukofzer.[131]
The baroque was a period of musical experimentation and innovation which explains the amount of ornaments and improvisation performed by the musicians. New forms were invented, including theconcerto andsinfonia.Opera was born in Italy at the end of the 16th century (withJacopo Peri's mostly lostDafne, produced inFlorence in 1598) and soon spread through the rest of Europe: Louis XIV created the firstRoyal Academy of Music. In 1669 the poetPierre Perrin opened an academy of opera in Paris, the first opera theatre in France open to the public, and premieredPomone, the first grand opera in French, with music byRobert Cambert, with five acts, elaborate stage machinery, and a ballet.[133]Heinrich Schütz in Germany,Jean-Baptiste Lully in France, andHenry Purcell in England all helped to establish their national traditions in the 17th century.
Several new instruments, including thepiano, were introduced during this period. The invention of the piano is credited toBartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1731) ofPadua, Italy, who was employed byFerdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany, as the Keeper of the Instruments.[134][135] Cristofori named the instrumentun cimbalo di cipresso di piano e forte ("a keyboard ofcypress with soft and loud"), abbreviated over time aspianoforte,fortepiano, and later, simply, piano.[136]
The classical ballet also originated in the Baroque era. The style of court dance was brought to France byMarie de' Medici, and in the beginning the members of the court themselves were the dancers.Louis XIV himself performed in public in several ballets. In March 1662, theAcadémie Royale de Danse, was founded by the King. It was the first professional dance school and company, and set the standards and vocabulary for ballet throughout Europe during the period.[133]
Heinrich Wölfflin was the first to transfer the term Baroque to literature.[137] The key concepts of Baroque literary theory, such as "conceit" (concetto), "wit" (acutezza,ingegno), and "wonder" (meraviglia), were not fully developed in literary theory until the publication ofEmanuele Tesauro'sIl Cannocchiale aristotelico (The Aristotelian Telescope) in 1654. This seminal treatise - inspired byGiambattista Marino's epicAdone and the work of the SpanishJesuit philosopherBaltasar Gracián - developed a theory ofmetaphor as a universal language of images and as a supreme intellectual act, at once an artifice and an epistemologically privileged mode of access to truth.[138]
Set design forAndromedé byPierre Corneille, (1650)Design for a theater set created byGiacomo Torelli for the balletLes Noces de Thétis, fromDécorations et machines aprestées aux nopces de Tétis, Ballet Royal
During the Baroque period, the art and style of the theatre evolved rapidly, alongside the development of opera and of ballet. The design of newer and larger theatres, the invention the use of more elaborate machinery, the wider use of theproscenium arch, which framed the stage and hid the machinery from the audience, encouraged more scenic effects and spectacle.[139]
The Baroque had a Catholic and conservative character in Spain, following an Italian literary model during the Renaissance.[140] The Hispanic Baroque theatre aimed for a public content with an ideal reality that manifested fundamental three sentiments: Catholic religion, monarchist and national pride and honour originating from the chivalric, knightly world.[141]
Lope de Vega introduced through hisArte nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo (1609) thenew comedy. He established a new dramatic formula that broke the threeAristotle unities of the Italian school of poetry (action, time, and place) and a fourth unity of Aristotle which is about style, mixing of tragic and comic elements showing different types of verses and stanzas upon what is represented.[144] Although Lope has a great knowledge of the plastic arts, he did not use it during the major part of his career nor in theatre or scenography. The Lope's comedy granted a second role to the visual aspects of the theatrical representation.[145]
Tirso de Molina, Lope de Vega, and Calderón were the most important play writers in Golden Era Spain. Their works, known for their subtle intelligence and profound comprehension of a person's humanity, could be considered a bridge between Lope's primitive comedy and the more elaborate comedy of Calderón. Tirso de Molina is best known for two works,The Convicted Suspicions andThe Trickster of Seville, one of the first versions of theDon Juan myth.[146]
Upon his arrival to Madrid,Cosimo Lotti brought to the Spanish court the most advanced theatrical techniques of Europe. His techniques and mechanic knowledge were applied in palace exhibitions called "Fiestas" and in lavish exhibitions of rivers or artificial fountains called "Naumaquias". He was in charge of styling the Gardens ofBuen Retiro, ofZarzuela, and ofAranjuez and the construction of the theatrical building of Coliseo del Buen Retiro.[147] Lope's formulas begin with a verse that it unbefitting of the palace theatre foundation and the birth of new concepts that begun the careers of some play writers like Calderón de la Barca. Marking the principal innovations of the New Lopesian Comedy, Calderón's style marked many differences, with a great deal of constructive care and attention to his internal structure. Calderón's work is in formal perfection and a very lyric and symbolic language. Liberty, vitality and openness of Lope gave a step to Calderón's intellectual reflection and formal precision. In his comedy it reflected his ideological and doctrine intentions in above the passion and the action, the work ofAutos sacramentales achieved high ranks.[148] The genre of Comedia is political, multi-artistic and in a sense hybrid. The poetic text interweaved with Medias and resources originating from architecture, music and painting freeing the deception that is in the Lopesian comedy was made up from the lack of scenery and engaging the dialogue of action.[149]
The foremost Italian baroque tragedian wasFederico Della Valle. His literary activity is summed up by the four plays that he wrote for the courtly theater: thetragicomedyAdelonda di Frigia (1595) and especially his three tragedies,Judith (1627),Esther (1627) andLa reina di Scotia (1628). Della Valle had many imitators and followers who combined in their works Baroque taste and the didactic aims of the Jesuits (Francesco Sforza Pallavicino,Girolamo Graziani, etc.)
In theTsardom of Russia, the development of the Russian version of Baroque took shape only in the second half of the 17th century, primarily due to the initiative of tsarAlexis of Russia, who wanted to open a court theatre in 1672. Its director and dramatist was Johann Gottfried Gregorii, a German-Russian Lutheran pastor, who wrote, in particular, a 10-hour playThe Action of Artaxerxes. The dramaturgy ofSymeon of Polotsk andDemetrius of Rostov became key contribution to the Russian Baroque.[150]
Following the evolution marked from Spain, at the end of the 16th century, the companies of comedians, essentially transhumant, began to professionalize. With professionalization came regulation and censorship: as in Europe, the theatre oscillated between tolerance and even government protection and rejection (with exceptions) or persecution by the Church. The theatre was useful to the authorities as an instrument to disseminate the desired behavior and models, respect for the social order and the monarchy, school of religious dogma.[151]
Thecorrales were administered for the benefit of hospitals that shared the benefits of the representations. The itinerant companies (or "of theleague"), who carried the theatre in improvised open-air stages by the regions that did not have fixed locals, required a viceregal license to work, whose price orpinción was destined to alms and works pious.[151] For companies that worked stably in the capitals and major cities, one of their main sources of income was participation in thefestivities of the Corpus Christi, which provided them with not only economic benefits, but also recognition and social prestige. The representations in the viceregal palace and the mansions of the aristocracy, where they represented both the comedies of their repertoire and special productions with great lighting effects, scenery, and stage, were also an important source of well-paid and prestigious work.[151]
Born in the Viceroyalty ofNew Spain[152] but later settled in Spain,Juan Ruiz de Alarcón is the most prominent figure in the Baroque theatre of New Spain. Despite his accommodation to Lope de Vega's new comedy, his "marked secularism", his discretion and restraint, and a keen capacity for "psychological penetration" as distinctive features of Alarcón against his Spanish contemporaries have been noted. Noteworthy among his worksLa verdad sospechosa, a comedy of characters that reflected his constant moralizing purpose.[151] The dramatic production of SorJuana Inés de la Cruz places her as the second figure of the Spanish-American Baroque theatre. It is worth mentioning among her works theauto sacramentalEl divino Narciso and the comedyLos empeños de una casa.
Garden of theSchwerin Castle, Schwerin, Germany, unknown architect, unknown date
The Baroque garden, also known as thejardin à la française orFrench formal garden, first appeared in Rome in the 16th century, and then most famously in France in the 17th century in the gardens ofVaux le Vicomte and thePalace of Versailles. Baroque gardens were built by Kings and princes in Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, Spain, Poland, Italy and Russia until the mid-18th century, when they began to be remade into by the more naturalEnglish landscape garden.
The purpose of the baroque garden was to illustrate the power of man over nature, and the glory of its builder, Baroque gardens were laid out in geometric patterns, like the rooms of a house. They were usually best seen from the outside and looking down, either from a château or terrace. The elements of a baroque garden includedparterres of flower beds or low hedges trimmed into ornate Baroque designs, and straight lanes and alleys of gravel which divided and crisscrossed the garden. Terraces, ramps, staircases and cascades were placed where there were differences of elevation, and provided viewing points. Circular or rectangular ponds or basins of water were the settings for fountains and statues.Bosquets or carefully trimmed groves or lines of identical trees, gave the appearance of walls of greenery and were backdrops for statues. On the edges, the gardens usually had pavilions, orangeries and other structures where visitors could take shelter from the sun or rain.[157]
Baroque gardens required enormous numbers of gardeners, continual trimming, and abundant water. In the later part of the Baroque period, the formal elements began to be replaced with more natural features, including winding paths, groves of varied trees left to grow untrimmed; rustic architecture and picturesque structures, such as Roman temples or Chinese pagodas, as well as "secret gardens" on the edges of the main garden, filled with greenery, where visitors could read or have quiet conversations. By the mid-18th century most of the Baroque gardens were partially or entirely transformed into variations of theEnglish landscape garden.[157]
16th through 19th century European cities witnessed a large change inurban design andplanning principals that reshaped the landscapes and built environment. Rome, Paris, and other major cities were transformed to accommodate growing populations through improvements in housing, transportation, and public services. Throughout this time, the Baroque style was in full swing, and the influences of elaborate, dramatic, and artistic architectural styles extended into the urban fabric through what is known as Baroque urban planning. The experience of living and walking in the cities aims to complement the emotions of the Baroque style. This style of planning often embraced displaying the wealth and strength of the ruling powers, and the important buildings served as the visual and symbolic center of the cities.[158]
The replanning of the city of Rome under the rule ofPope Sixtus V revived and expanded the city in the 16th century. Many grand piazzas and squares were added as public spaces to contribute to the dramatic effect of the Baroque style. The piazzas featured fountains and other decorative features to embody the emotions of the time. An important factor in Baroque style planning was to connect churches, government structures, and piazzas together in a refined network of axis'. This allowed the important landmarks of theCatholic Church to become the focal points of the city.[159][unreliable source?]
As another example of Baroque urban planning, Paris was in desperate need for an urban revival in the 19th century. The city underwent a dramatic change within its urban fabric through the help ofBaron Haussmann. Under the rule ofNapoleon III, Haussmann was appointed to reconstruct Paris by adding a new network of streets, parks, trains, and public services. Some of the characteristics of Haussmann's design include straight, wideboulevards lined with trees, and short access to parks and green spaces.[160] The plan highlights some important buildings, such as theParis Opera House.
Aerial view of Barcelona
More characteristics of Baroque urban planning are embodied in Barcelona. TheEixample district, designed byIldefons Cerdà, showcases wide avenues in a grid system with a few diagonal boulevards. The intersections are unique withoctagonal blocks, which provide the streets with great visibility and light.[161] Many works in this district come from architectAntoni Gaudí, who displays a unique style. Centered in the Eixample district design is theSagrada Família by Gaudí, which poses great significance to the city.
Meudon Observatory,Château de Meudon, Meudon, France, an example of an early Rococo building from the last years ofLouis XIV, unknown architect, 1706–1709[162]
The Rococo is the final stage of the Baroque, and in many ways took the Baroque's fundamental qualities of illusion and drama to their logical extremes. Beginning in France as a reaction against the heavy Baroque grandeur ofLouis XIV's court at thePalace of Versailles, the rococo movement became associated particularly with the powerfulMadame de Pompadour (1721–1764), the mistress of the new king,Louis XV (1710–1774). Because of this, the style was also known asPompadour. Although it's highly associated with the reign of Louis XV, it didn't appear in this period. Multiple works from the last years of Louis XIV's reign are examples of early Rococo. The name of the movement derives from the Frenchrocaille, or pebble, and refers to stones and shells that decorate the interiors of caves, as similar shell forms became a common feature in Rococo design. It began as a design anddecorative arts style, and was characterized by elegant flowing shapes. Architecture followed and then painting and sculpture. The French painter with whom the term Rococo is most often associated isJean-Antoine Watteau, whose pastoral scenes, orfêtes galantes, dominate the early part of the 18th century.
There are multiple similarities between Rococo and Baroque. Both styles insist on monumental forms, and so use continuous spaces,double columns or pilasters, and luxurious materials (including gilded elements). There also noticeable differences. Rococo designed freed themselves from the adherence to symmetry that had dominated architecture and design since theRenaissance. Many small objects, like ink pots or porcelain figures, but also some ornaments, are often asymmetrical. This goes hand in hand with the fact that most ornamentation consisted of interpretation of foliage and sea shells, not as many Classical ornaments inherited from the Renaissance like in Baroque. Another key difference is the fact that since the Baroque is the main cultural manifestation of the spirit of theCounter-Reformation, it is most often associated with ecclesiastical architecture. In contrast, the Rococo is mainly associated with palaces and domestic architecture. In Paris, the popularity of the Rococo coincided with the emergence of the salon as a new type of social gathering, the venues for which were often decorated in this style. Rococo rooms were typically smaller than their Baroque counterparts, reflecting a movement towards domestic intimacy.[167] Colours also match this change, from the earthy tones ofCaravaggio's paintings, and the interiors of red marble and gilded mounts of the reign ofLouis XIV, to the pastel and relaxed pale blue, Pompadour pink, and white of the Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour's France. Similarly to colours, there was also a transition from serious, dramatic and moralistic subjects in painting and sculpture, to lighthearted and joyful themes.
One last difference between Baroque and Rococo is the interest that 18th century aristocrats had forEast Asia.Chinoiserie was a style in fine art, architecture and design, popular during the 18th century, that was heavily inspired by Chinese art, but also by Rococo at the same time. Because traveling to China or other Far Eastern countries was hard at that time and so remained mysterious to most Westerners, European imagination were fuelled by perceptions of Asia as a place of wealth and luxury, and consequently patrons from emperors to merchants vied with each other in adorning their living quarters with Asian goods and decorating them in Asian styles. Where Asian objects were hard to obtain, European craftsmen and painters stepped up to fill the demand, creating a blend of Rococo forms and Asian figures, motifs and techniques. Aside from European recreations of objects in East Asian style, Chineselacquerware was reused in multiple ways. European aristocrats fully decorated a handful of rooms of palaces, with Chinese lacquer panels used as wall panels. Due to its aspect, black lacquer was popular for Western men's studies. Those panels used were usually glossy and black, made in theHenan province of China. They were made of multiple layers of lacquer, then incised with motifs in-filled with colour and gold. Chinese, but alsoJapanese lacquer panels were also used by some 18th century European carpenters for making furniture. In order to be produced, Asian screens were dismantled and used to veneer European-made furniture.
The pioneer German art historian and archeologistJohann Joachim Winckelmann also condemned the baroque style, and praised the superior values of classical art and architecture. By the 19th century, Baroque was a target for ridicule and criticism. The neoclassical critic Francesco Milizia wrote: "Borrominini in architecture, Bernini in sculpture, Pietro da Cortona in painting...are a plague on good taste, which infected a large number of artists."[168] In the 19th century, criticism went even further; the British criticJohn Ruskin declared that baroque sculpture was not only bad, but also morally corrupt.[168]
The Swiss-born art historianHeinrich Wölfflin (1864–1945) started the rehabilitation of the word Baroque in hisRenaissance und Barock (1888); Wölfflin identified the Baroque as "movement imported into mass", an art antithetic to Renaissance art. He did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Baroque art and architecture became fashionable in theinterwar period, and has largely remained in critical favor. The term "Baroque" may still be used, often pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, or design that are thought to have excessive ornamentation or complexity of line.[169] At the same time "baroque" has become an accepted terms for various trends inRoman art andRoman architecture in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, which display some of the same characteristics as the later Baroque.[citation needed]
The Grand Salon of the apartments of the minister of state, currently known as the Napoleon III Apartments, designed byHector Lefuel and decorated with paintings byCharles Raphaël Maréchal, 1859–1860[171]
Table; 2nd half of the 19th century; Boulle marquetry; unknown dimensions; in a temporary exhibition called "Dress Code Parfum de Secol XIX" at theSuțu Palace,Bucharest, Romania
Rue Guynemer no. 2, Paris, with a facade made up from a mix of detailed stone elements and big simple brick surfaces like what is inPlace des Vosges from Paris, byLouis Périn, 1914
Door of Rue Guynemer no. 2, Paris, withpalmettes, shells,volutes, garlands, proportions and other elements seen on wrought iron, furniture, textiles and ceramics from the reign of Louis XIV
Highly criticized, the Baroque would later be a source of inspiration for artists, architects and designers during the 19th century throughRomanticism, a movement that developed in the 18th century and that reached its peak in the 19th. It was characterized by its emphasis on emotion andindividualism, as well as glorification of the past and nature, preferring the medieval to the classical. A mix of literary, religious, and political factors prompted late-18th and 19th century British architects and designers to look back to the Middle Ages for inspiration. Romanticism is the reason the 19th century is best known as the century ofrevivals.[175] In France, Romanticism was not the key factor that led to the revival of Gothic architecture and design. Vandalism of monuments and buildings associated with theAncien Régime (Old Regime) happened during theFrench Revolution. Because of this an archaeologist,Alexandre Lenoir, was appointed curator of the Petits-Augustins depot, where sculptures, statues and tombs removed from churches, abbeys and convents had been transported. He organized theMuseum of French Monuments (1795–1816), and was the first to bring back the taste for the art of the Middle Ages, which progressed slowly to flourish a quarter of a century later.[176]
This taste and revival of medieval art led to the revival of other periods, including the Baroque and Rococo. Revivalism started with themes first from the Middle Ages, then, towards the end of the reign ofLouis Philippe I (1830–1848), from theRenaissance. Baroque and Rococo inspiration was more popular during the reign ofNapoleon III (1852–1870), and continued later, after the fall of theSecond French Empire.[177]
Compared to how in England architects and designers saw theGothic as a national style, Rococo was seen as one of the most representative movements for France. The French felt much more connected to the styles of theAncien Régime andNapoleon's Empire, than to the medieval or Renaissance past, although Gothic architecture appeared in France, not in England.
The revivalism of the 19th century led in time toeclecticism (mix of elements of different styles). Because architects often revived Classical styles, most Eclectic buildings and designs have a distinctive look. Besides pure revivals, the Baroque was also one of the main sources of inspiration for eclecticism. Thecoupled column and thegiant order, two elements widely used in Baroque, are often present in this kind of 19th and early 20th century buildings. Eclecticism was not limited only to architecture. Many designs from theSecond Empire style (1848–1870) have elements taken from different styles. Little furniture from the period escaped its three most prevalent historicist influences, which are sometimes kept distinct and sometimes combined: the Renaissance,Louis XV (Rococo), andLouis XVI styles. Revivals and inspiration also came sometimes from Baroque, like in the case of remakes andarabesques that imitateBoulle marquetry, and from other styles, like Gothic, Renaissance, orEnglish Regency.[178]
TheBelle Époque was a period that begun around 1871–1880 and that ended with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It was characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, colonial expansion, and technological, scientific, and cultural innovations. Eclecticism reached its peak in this period, withBeaux Arts architecture. The style takes its name from theÉcole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied. Buildings in this style often featureIonic columns with theirvolues on the corner (like those found in French Baroque), a rusticated basement level, overall simplicity but with some really detailed parts, arched doors, and an arch above the entrance like the one of thePetit Palais in Paris. The style aimed for a Baroque opulence through lavishly decorated monumental structures that evokedLouis XIV'sVersailles. When it comes to the design of theBelle Époque, all furniture from the past was admired, including, perhaps, contrary to expectations, the Second Empire style (the style of the proceeding period), which remained popular until 1900. In the years around 1900, there was a gigantic recapitulation of styles of all countries in all preceding periods. Everything from Chinese to Spanish models, from Boulle to Gothic, found its way into furniture production, but some styles were more appreciated than others. TheHigh Middle Ages and the early Renaissance were especially prized.Exoticism of every stripe and exuberant Rococo designs were also favoured.[179]
Revivals and influence of the Baroque faded away and disappeared withArt Deco, a style created as a collective effort of multiple French designers to make a new modern style around 1910. It was obscure before WW1, but became very popular during theinterwar period, being heavily associated with the 1920s and the 1930s. The movement was a blend of multiple characteristics taken fromModernist currents from the 1900s and the 1910s, like theVienna Secession,Cubism,Fauvism,Primitivism,Suprematism,Constructivism,Futurism,De Stijl, andExpressionism. Besides Modernism, elements taken from styles popular during the Belle Époque, likeRococo Revival,Neoclassicism, or the neo-Louis XVI style, are also present in Art Deco. The proportions, volumes and structure of Beaux Arts architecture before WW1 is present in early Art Deco buildings of the 1910s and 1920s. Elements taken from Baroque are quite rare, architects and designers preferring the Louis XVI style.
At the end of the interwar period, with the rise in popularity of theInternational Style, characterized by the complete lack of any ornamentation led to the complete abandonment of influence and revivals of the Baroque. Multiple International Style architects and designers, but alsoModernist artists criticized Baroque for its extravagance and what they saw as "excess". Ironically this was just at the same time as the critical appreciation of the original Baroque was reviving strongly.
Dolphin Hotel,Orlando, Florida, US, withurn tops that are reminiscent of urns that decorate corners, tops and roof railings of buildings and furniture from the reign ofLouis XIV, byMichael Graves, 1989[180]
Box, part of the Le Jardin de Versace collection, with complexrinceaux that are reminiscent of the Baroque ones from the 17th and very early 18th centuries, but also similar to the ones from the reign of Napoleon; designed byVersace and produced byRosenthal; unknown date; porcelain; unknown dimensions or location
Appreciation for the Baroque reappeared with the rise ofPostmodernism, a movement that questionedModernism (thestatus quo after WW2), and which promoted the inclusion of elements of historic styles in new designs, and appreciation for the pre-Modernist past. Specific references to Baroque are rare, since Postmodernism often included highly simplified elements that were 'quotations' of Classicism in general, like pediments or columns.
More references to Baroque are found inVersace ceramic ware and fashion, decorated with maximalistacanthusrinceaux, very similar to the ones found in Italian Baroque ornament plates and inBoulle work, but also similar to the ones found onEmpire objects, especially textiles, from the reign ofNapoleon I.
^"BAROQUE: Etymologie de BAROQUE".Centre national de ressources textuelles et lexicales.empr. au port.barroco « rocher granitique » et « perle irrégulière », attesté dep. le xiiie s. sous la formebarroca (Inquisitiones, p. 99,Portugaliae Monumenta Historica, 1856 sqq. dans Mach.), d'orig. obsc., prob. préromane en raison du suff. -ǒccu très répandu sur le territoire ibérique
^"Baroque".Online Etymological Dictionary. Retrieved31 December 2018.But Klein suggests the name may be from Italian painter Federico Barocci (1528–1612), whose work influenced the style.
^Claude V. Palisca, "Baroque".The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited byStanley Sadie andJohn Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001).
^Helen Gardner, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya,Gardner's Art Through the Ages (Belmont, CA:Thomson/Wadsworth, 2005), p. 516.
^Heal, Bridget (20 February 2018)."The Reformation and Lutheran Baroque".Oxford University Press. Retrieved1 May 2018.However, the writings of theologians can go only so far towards explaining the evolution of confessional consciousness and the shaping of religious identity. Lutheran attachment to religious images was a result not only of Luther's own cautious endorsement of their use, but also of the particular religious and political context in which his Reformation unfolded. After the reformer's death in 1546, the image question was fiercely contested once again. But as Calvinism, with its iconoclastic tendencies, spread, Germany's Lutherans responded by reaffirming their commitment to the proper use of religious images. In 1615, Berlin's Lutheran citizens even rioted when their Calvinist rulers removed images from the city's Cathedral.
^Bury, J. B. (1956). "Late Baroque and Rococo in North Portugal".Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians.15 (3):7–15.doi:10.2307/987760.JSTOR987760.
^Prater and Bauer,La Peinture du baroque (1997), p. 11
^Prater and Bauer,La Peinture du baroque (1997), pp. 3–15
^Prater and Bauer,La Peinture du baroque (1997), p. 12
^"Elements of the Baroque Style." InArts and Humanities Through the Eras, edited by Edward I. Bleiberg, James Allan Evans, Kristen Mossler Figg, Philip M. Soergel, and John Block Friedman, 466–470. Vol. 5, The Age of the Baroque and Enlightenment 1600–1800. Detroit, MI: Gale, 2005.
^Heinrich Wölfflin,Renaissance und Barock (Munich: F. Bruckmann, 1888); in English,Renaissance and Baroque, trans. Kathrin Simon (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1964).
^Sohm, Philip (1991).Pittoresco. Marco Boschini, His Critics, and Their Critiques of Painterly Brushwork in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Italy. Cambridge University Press. p. 126.ISBN978-0-521-38256-4.
^According to the playwright's own statements, he was born in Mexico City in 1580 or 1581. However, a baptismal certificate dated December 30, 1572 has been found in Taxco, belonging to a boy named Juan, son of Pedro Ruiz de Alarcón and Leonor de Mendoza, the poet's parents. Despite Alarcón's statements, most critics consider Taxco his birthplace. See Lola Josa,Juan Ruiz de Alarcón y su nuevo arte de entender la comedia, Madrid, International Association of Hispanists, 2008, pp. 7–14.
^Cohen, Gary B.; Szabo, Franz A.J. (31 December 2022). "Introduction Embodiments of Power: Building Baroque Cities in Austria and Europe".Embodiments of Power. Berghahn Books. pp. 1–8.doi:10.1515/9780857450500-004.ISBN978-0-85745-050-0.
^Rideout, Amy.Beyond the Façade: Haussmannization in Paris as a Transformation of ..., University of Tennessee Knoxville, Apr. 2016, trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1321&context=pursuit.
Amadei-Pulice, María Alicia (1990).Calderón y el barroco: exaltación y engaño de los sentidos. Purdue University monographs in Romance languages (in Italian). Vol. 31. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.ISBN978-9-02-721747-9.
Bély, Lucien (2005).Louis XIV – Le Plus Grand Roi du Monde (in French). Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot.ISBN978-2-87-747772-7.
Boucher, Bruce (1998).Italian Baroque Sculpture. World of Art. Thames & Hudson.ISBN0-500-20307-5.
Cabanne, Pierre (1988).L'Art Classique et le Baroque (in French). Paris: Larousse.ISBN978-2-03-583324-2.
Causa, Raffaello,L'Art au XVIII siècle du rococo à Goya (1963), (in French) Hachcette, ParisISBN2-86535-036-3
Celac, Mariana; Carabela, Octavian; Marcu-Lapadat, Marius (2017).Bucharest Architecture - an annotated guide. Order of Architects of Romania.ISBN978-973-0-23884-6.
Ducher, Robert (1988).Caractéristique des Styles. Paris: Flammarion.ISBN2-08-011539-1.
Ducher, Robert (2014).La Caractéristique des Styles.
González Mas, Ezequiel (1980).Historia de la literatura española: (Siglo XVII). Barroco, Volumen 3. La Editorial, UPR.
Hodge, Susie (2017).The Short Story of Art. Laurence King Publishing.ISBN978-1-78067-968-6.
Hodge, Susie (2019).The Short Story of Architecture. Laurence King Publishing.ISBN978-1-7862-7370-3.
Hopkins, Owen (2014).Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide. Laurence King.ISBN978-178067-163-5.
Isacoff, Stuart (2012).A Natural History of the Piano: The Instrument, the Music, the Musicians – From Mozart to Modern Jazz and Everything in Between. Knopf Doubleday Publishing.
Jones, Denna, ed. (2014).Architecture: the whole story. London: Thames and Hudson.ISBN978-0-500-29148-1.
Bazin, Germain, 1964.Baroque and Rococo. Praeger World of Art Series. New York: Praeger. (Originally published in French, asClassique, baroque et rococo. Paris: Larousse. English edition reprinted asBaroque and Rococo Art, New York: Praeger, 1974)
Bailey, Gauvin; Lanthier, Lillian,"Baroque" (2003),Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press, Web. Retrieved 30 March 2021.(subscription required)
Hills, Helen (ed.). 2011.Rethinking the Baroque. Farnham, Surrey; Burlington, VT: Ashgate.ISBN978-0-7546-6685-1.
Hofer, Philip. 1951.Baroque Book Illustration: A Short Survey.Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Hortolà, Policarp, 2013,The Aesthetics of Haemotaphonomy: Stylistic Parallels between a Science and Literature and the Visual Arts.Sant Vicent del Raspeig: ECU.ISBN978-84-9948-991-9.
Kitson, Michael. 1966.The Age of Baroque. Landmarks of the World's Art. London: Hamlyn; New York: McGraw-Hill.
Palisca, Claude V. (1991) [1961].Baroque Music. Prentice Hall History of Music (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.ISBN0-13-058496-7.OCLC318382784.
Riegl, Alois (2010). Hopkins, Andrew (ed.).The Origins of Baroque Art in Rome (Texts and Documents). Getty Research Institute.ISBN978-1-6060-6041-4.
Wölfflin, Heinrich (1964) [Originally published in German, 1888].Renaissance and Baroque. Translated by Simon, Kathrin. Collins.ISBN0-00-217349-2.
Wakefield, Steve. 2004.Carpentier's Baroque Fiction: Returning Medusa's Gaze. Colección Támesis. Serie A, Monografías 208. Rochester, NY: Tamesis.ISBN1-85566-107-1.
Massimo Colella,Separatezza e conversazione. Sondaggi intertestuali attorno a Ciro di Pers, in «Xenia. Trimestrale di Letteratura e Cultura» (Genova), IV, 1, 2019, pp. 11–37.
Massimo Colella,Il Barocco sabaudo tra mecenatismo e retorica. Maria Giovanna Battista di Savoia Nemours e l'Accademia Reale Letteraria di Torino, con Prefazione di Maria Luisa Doglio, Fondazione 1563 per l'Arte e la Cultura della Compagnia di San Paolo, Torino ("Alti Studi sull'Età e la Cultura del Barocco", IV-1), 2019.
Massimo Colella,Seicento satirico: "Il Viaggio" di Antonio Abati (con edizione critica in appendice), in «La parola del testo», XXVI, 1–2, 2022, pp. 77–100.
![St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and others, completed in 1615[27]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBasilique_Saint_Pierre_-_Vatican_(VA)_-_2021-08-25_-_4.jpg)
![Santa Maria della Salute, Venice, by Baldassare Longhena, 1631–1687[28]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSanta_Maria_della_Salute_from_Hotel_Monaco.jpg)
![Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi, Rome, by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1648–1651[29]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aObelisco_Fontana_dei_Fiumi_Piazza_Navona_Roma.jpg)
![St. Peter's Square, Rome, by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1656–1667[27]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSt_Peter%2527s_Square%2c_Vatican_City_-_April_2007.jpg)
![Santa Maria della Pace, Rome, by Pietro da Cortona, 1656–1667[30]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a%25C3%2589glise_Santa_Maria_Pace_-_Rome_(IT62)_-_2021-08-28_-_3.jpg)
.jpg)
![Royal Palace of Madrid, by Jean Bautista Sachetti, 1735–1764[36]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPalacio_Real_de_Madrid_-_13.jpg)
![Façade of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Spain, by Fernando de Casas Novoa, 1738[37]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCatedral_de_Santiago_de_Compostela_agosto_2018_(cropped).jpg)
![Wilanów Palace, Warsaw, Poland, unknown architect, 1677–1679[41]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a281012_Detail_of_the_Wilan%25C3%25B3w_Palace_-_19.jpg)
![Plague Column, Vienna, Austria, by Matthias Rauchmiller and Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1682 and 1694[42]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWien_Graben_Pests%25C3%25A4ule_Ostseite.jpg)
![Church of Saint Nicholas, Prague, Czech Republic, by Christoph Dientzenhofer, 1703–1711[43]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSt._Nikolaus_auf_der_Kleinseite_Innenraum_1.jpg)
![Exterior of the Karlskirche, Vienna, by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1715–1737[44]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKarlskirche_Wien_September_2016.jpg)
![Interior of the Karlskirche, by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1715–1737[44]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIglesia_de_San_Carlos_Borromeo%2c_Viena%2c_Austria%2c_2020-01-31%2c_DD_49-51_HDR.jpg)
![Upper Belvedere, Vienna, by Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt, 1717–1723[45]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPalacio_Belvedere%2c_Viena%2c_Austria%2c_2020-02-01%2c_DD_87-89_HDR.jpg)
![Rogalin Palace, Rogalin, Poland, unknown architect, 1768–1774[46]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPa%25C5%2582ac_w_Rogalinie_od_strony_ogrodu_02.jpg)
![Château de Maisons, France, by François Mansart, 1630–1651[54]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCh%25C3%25A2teau_de_Maisons-Laffitte_001.jpg)
![Galerie d'Apollon, Louvre Palace, Paris, by Louis Le Vau and Charles Le Brun, after 1661[55]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aGalerie_d%2527Apollon_du_Louvre_d%25C3%25A9serte_1.jpg)
![East front of the Louvre Palace, Paris, by Claude Perrault and Louis Le Vau, 1665–1680[56]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aLouvre-facade-est.jpg)
![Chapel of the Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, 1696–1710[57]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aVersailles_Chapel_-_July_2006_edit.jpg)
![Porte Saint-Denis, Paris, by François Blondel, 1672[58]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPorte_Saint-Denis_01.jpg)
![Dôme des Invalides, Paris, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1677–1706[59]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCath%25C3%25A9drale_Saint-Louis-des-Invalides%2c_140309_2.jpg)
![Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, 1678–1684[60]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aChateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg)
![Garden façade of the Palace of Versailles, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1678–1688[61]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPalace_of_Versailles_June_2010.jpg)
![Place Vendôme, Paris, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1699–1706[63]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPlace_Vendome%2c_Paris_20_April_2011.jpg)
![Hôtel de Rothelin-Charolais, Paris, by Pierre Cailleteau, 1700–1704[64]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aH%25C3%25B4tel_de_Rothelin_-_fa%25C3%25A7ade_cour.jpg)
![University Library, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal, by Gaspar Ferreira, 1716–1728[69]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBiblioteca_Joanina_Universidade_de_Coimbra_IMG_0664.JPG)
![Palace of Mafra, Mafra, Portugal, by João Frederico Ludovice, 1717–1755[70]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMafra_(27595630149)_(cropped).jpg)
![Azulejo in the cloisters of the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora, Lisbon, Portugal, with a scene based on a print by Jean Le Pautre, unknown architect or craftsman, 1730–1735[71]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPatriarcato_di_Lisbona_(3093346552).jpg)
![Grand Staircase of the Sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Monte, Braga, Portugal, by Carlos Luís Ferreira Amarante and others, c. 1784[72]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBom_Jesus_2017_(10).jpg)
![Peterhof Gardens, Saint Petersburg, Russia, unknown architect, 1746–1758[83]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a2019-08-02-3847-Saint_Petersburg.jpg)
![Smolny Convent, Saint Petersburg, by Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, 1748[84]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSmolny_Cathedral_SPB_02.jpg)
![Tsarskoe Selo, Pushkin, Russia, by Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, 1749–1756[85]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCatherine_Palace_in_Tsarskoe_Selo.jpg)
_por_Rodrigo_Tetsuo_Argenton.jpg)
![Basilica of San Francisco de Asís, Havana, Cuba, unknown architect, 1548–1738[87]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBasilica_Menor_de_San_Francisco_de_Asis_in_Havana_2016.jpg)
.jpg)
![Santo Domingo Church, Santiago, Chile, unknown architect, 1747–1808[88]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIglesia_de_Santo_Domingo%2c_Santiago%2c_2017-09-24.jpg)
![Church of Santa Prisca de Taxco, Taxco, Mexico, by Diego Durán and Cayetano Sigüenza, 1751–1758[89]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTaxco_Santa_Prisca.jpg)
.jpg)
![São Paulo in Macau, China, unknown architect, 1601[98]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aRestos_de_la_Catedral_de_San_Pablo%2c_Macao%2c_2013-08-08%2c_DD_05.jpg)
![São Paulo in Diu, India, unknown architect, 1601[99]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEglise_St_Paul.jpg)
_by_Brambila.jpg)
.jpg)
![Horezu Monastery, Horezu, Romania, with a Solomonic column, unknown architect, 17th–18th centuries[100]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHurezi_(14572944446).jpg)
![Twisting columns and railings of the Mogoșoaia Palace, Mogoșoaia, unknown architect, early 18th century[101]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMogosoaia_Museum_(128813769).jpeg)
![Resurrection of Christ; by Annibale Carracci; 1593; oil on canvas; 217 x 160 cm; Louvre[103]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAnnibale_Carracci%2c_Resurrezione%2c_Louvre.jpg)
![Triumph of Bacchus and Adriane (part of The Loves of the Gods); by Annibale Carracci; c.1597–1600; fresco; length (gallery): 20.2 m; Palazzo Farnese, Rome[104]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aThe_Triumph_of_Bacchus_and_Ariadne_-_Annibale_Carracci_-_1597_-_Farnese_Gallery%2c_Rome.jpg)
![The Calling of St Matthew; by Caravaggio; c.1602–1604; oil on canvas; 3 x 2 m; San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome[105]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aThe_Calling_of_Saint_Matthew-Caravaggo_(1599-1600).jpg)
![Judith Slaying Holofernes; by Artemisia Gentileschi; 1611–1612; oil on canvas; 163 x 126 cm; Uffizi, Florence, Italy[106]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aArtemisia_Gentileschi_-_Giuditta_decapita_Oloferne_-_Google_Art_Project-Adjust.jpg)
![The Rape of the Sabine Women; by Nicolas Poussin; 1634–1635; oil on canvas; 1.55 × 2.1 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City[107]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aNicolas_Poussin_-_L%2527Enl%25C3%25A8vement_des_Sabines_(1634-5).jpg)
![The Night Watch; by Rembrandt; 1642; oil on canvas; 3.63 × 4.37 m; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands[108]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aLa_ronda_de_noche%2c_por_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg)
![Las Meninas; by Diego Velázquez; 1656; oil on canvas; 3.18 cm × 2.76 m; Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain[109]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aLas_Meninas%2c_by_Diego_Vel%25C3%25A1zquez%2c_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg)
![The Triumph of Bacchus; by Michaelina Wautier; before 1659; oil on canvas; 270 x 354 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum[110]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMichaelina_wautier-triunfo_de_baco.JPG)
![Vanitas Still Life; by Maria van Oosterwijck; 1668; oil on canvas; 73 x 88.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum[111]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMaria_van_Oosterwijck%2c_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Wien%2c_Gem%25C3%25A4ldegalerie_-_Vanitas-Stilleben_-_GG_5714.jpg)
![The King's Fame Riding Pegasus; by Antoine Coysevox; 1698–1702; Carrara marble; height: 3.15 m; Louvre[119]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aFame_riding_Pegasus_Coysevox_Louvre_MR1824.jpg)
.jpg)
![Four-poster bed from the Château d'Effiat; c.1650; natural walnut, chiselled Genoa silk velvet and embroidered silks; 295 cm; Louvre[122]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aDecorative_arts_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_32_D201903_(cropped).jpg)
![Cabinet with caryatids; c.1675; ebony, kingwood, marquetry of hard stones, gilt bronze, pewter, glass, tinted mirror and horn; unknown dimensions; Musée des Arts décoratifs, Strasbourg, France[123]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAntichambre_du_prince-%25C3%25A9v%25C3%25AAque_(Palais_Rohan%2c_Strasbourg)_cabinet.JPG)
![Pier table; 1685–1690; carved, gessoed, and gilded wood, with a marble top; 83.6 × 128.6 × 71.6 cm; Art Institute of Chicago, US[124]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aFrancia%2c_tavolo_da_parete%2c_1685-90_ca.jpg)
![Cupboard; by André Charles Boulle; c.1700; ebony and amaranth veneering, polychrome woods, brass, tin, shell, and horn marquetry on an oak frame, gilt-bronze; 255.5 x 157.5 cm; Louvre[125]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aArmoire_aux_perroquets_du_Louvre.jpg)
![Commode; by André-Charles Boulle; c.1710–1732; walnut veneered with ebony and marquetry of engraved brass and tortoiseshell, gilt-bronze mounts, antique marble top; 87.6 x 128.3 x 62.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[126]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCommode_MET_DP108742.jpg)
![German slant-front desk; by Heinrich Ludwig Rohde or Ferdinand Plitzner; c.1715–1725; marquetry with maple, amaranth, mahogany, and walnut on spruce and oak; 90 × 84 × 44.5 cm; Art Institute of Chicago[127]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHeinrich_ludwig_rohde_o_ferdinand_plitzner_(attr.)%2c_scrittoio_a_ribalta%2c_magonza_1720_ca.jpg)
![Gardens at Vaux-le-Vicomte, France, by André Le Nôtre, 1657–1661[153]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKasteel_van_Vaux-le-Vicomte_-_Maincy_06.jpg)
![Gardens of Versailles, by André Le Nôtre, begun in 1661[154]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aVue_a%25C3%25A9rienne_du_domaine_de_Versailles_le_20_ao%25C3%25BBt_2014_par_ToucanWings_-_Creative_Commons_By_Sa_3.0_-_22.jpg)
![Gardens of the Het Loo Palace, Netherlands, unknown architect, 1689[155]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHet_Loo_Hauptachse.JPG)
![Garden of the Tessin Palace, Stockholm, Sweden, by Nicodemus Tessin the Younger, 1692–1700[156]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a1_Tessinska_palatset_tr%25C3%25A4dg%25C3%25A5rd_2.jpg)
_(cropped).jpg)
![Meudon Observatory, Château de Meudon, Meudon, France, an example of an early Rococo building from the last years of Louis XIV, unknown architect, 1706–1709[162]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMeudon_observatoire_2016_(15).jpg)
![Amalienburg, Nymphenburg Palace Park, Munich, Germany, by François de Cuvilliés, 1734–1739[163]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a20230209_Amalienburg_Nymphenburg.jpg)
.jpg)
![Vieux-Laque Room, Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, Austria, decorated with Chinese black lacquerware panels, by Nikolaus Pacassi, 1743–1763[164]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aVienna_(124619801).jpeg)
![Chinese House, Sanssouci Park, Potsdam, Germany, an example of Chinoiserie, by Johann Gottfried Büring, 1755–1764[165]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aChinese_House_Potsdam-%2c_Germany.jpg)
%2c.jpg)
.jpg)
![Pagod, based on Asian figures of Budai, an example of Chinoiserie; by Johann Joachim Kändler; c.1765; hard paste porcelain; Metropolitan Museum of Art[166]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aNodding_pagod%2c_Meissen%2c_Germany%2c_c._1760%2c_porcelain%2c_1892.60.325_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art_-_New_York_City_-_DSC07727.jpg)
%2c_RP-P-2011-164-8.jpg)
_-_MUDO_-_%2522Cabaret_%25C3%25A0_la_mani%25C3%25A8re_de_Boulle%2522_(vers_1850-1870).jpg)
![Large console with central projection; by Benjamin Deguil and Benjamin-Paul Ramillon; 1850–1875; gilt wood and marble; 100 x 283 x 77 cm; Napoleon III Apartments, Louvre Palace, Paris[170]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aDecorative_arts_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_85_(01).jpg)
![The Grand Salon of the apartments of the minister of state, currently known as the Napoleon III Apartments, designed by Hector Lefuel and decorated with paintings by Charles Raphaël Maréchal, 1859–1860[171]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aNapoleon_III_Apartments_(44883695984).jpg)
![Candelabrum with eleven lights; by Ferdinand Barbedienne; 1861; gilt bronze; height: 83.7 cm, length: 49.4 cm; Napoleon III Apartments[172]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aDecorative_arts_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_83_(07).jpg)
![Exterior of the Palais Garnier, Paris, an example of Beaux Arts architecture, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875[173]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aParis_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg)
![Grand foyer of the Palais Garnier, inspired by the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, but with some ornaments taken from other historical styles, like the neo-Renaissance column lower parts, or the Greek Revival lyres at the tops of windows, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875[173]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aFoyer_(51865286672).jpg)
![Petit Palais, Paris, an example of Beaux Arts architecture, with Ionic columns very similar to those of the reign of Louis XIV, by Charles Giraud, 1900[174]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPetit-Palais-Paris-02-2018.jpg)
![St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and others, completed in 1615[27]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aVia_della_Conciliazione_at_dawn.JPG)
![Dolphin Hotel, Orlando, Florida, US, with urn tops that are reminiscent of urns that decorate corners, tops and roof railings of buildings and furniture from the reign of Louis XIV, by Michael Graves, 1989[180]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aDowntown_Disney_05.JPG)
![Urns that decorate the roof railing of the Marble Court of the Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, by Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart, c. 1660–1715[181]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aVersailles_roof_details_dormer_windows.jpg)
.jpg)
![Hotel Zaandam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, inspired by Dutch 16th and 17th century canal houses, by Wam Architecten, 2010[182]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aZaanstad_Inntel_Hotel_15.jpg)
![Herengracht no. 120, Amsterdam, unknown architect, c.1625[183]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWLM2011_-_Amsterdam_-_Herengracht_120.JPG)
![Baroque rinceaux with putti painted on the boiserie of a room from the Hôtel Colbert de Villacerf, now in the Musée Carnavalet, Paris, unknown architect, sculptor and painter, c.1650[184]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aH%25C3%25B4tel_Colbert_de_Villacerf_3.jpg)
