Inhabited byKalinago people since the 13th century, and prior to that by otherIndigenous peoples, Barbados was claimed for theCrown of Castile by Spanish navigators in the late 15th century. It first appeared on a Spanish map in 1511.[7] ThePortuguese Empire claimed the island between 1532 and 1536, but abandoned it in 1620 with their only remnants being the introduction of wild boars intended as a supply of meat whenever the island was visited. AnEnglish ship, theOlive Blossom, arrived in Barbados on 14 May 1625; its men took possession of the island in the name ofKing James I. In 1627, the first permanent settlers arrived from England, and Barbados became anEnglish and laterBritish colony.[8] During this period, the colony operated on aplantation economy, relying initially on the labour ofIrish indentured servants[9] and subsequentlyAfrican slaves who worked on the island's plantations. Slavery continued until it was phased out through most of theBritish Empire by theSlavery Abolition Act 1833.
Barbados's population is predominantly ofAfrican ancestry. While it is technically anAtlantic island, Barbados is closely associated with the Caribbean and is ranked as one of its leadingtourist destinations.[12]
The name "Barbados" is from either thePortuguese termos barbados or the Spanish equivalent,los barbados, both meaning "the bearded ones".[13][14] It is unclear whether "bearded" refers to the long, hanging roots of the beardedfig tree (Ficus citrifolia), a species ofbanyan indigenous to the island, or to the allegedly beardedKalinago (Island Caribs) who once inhabited the island, or, more fancifully, to a visual impression of a beard formed by the sea foam that sprays over the outlying coral reefs. In 1519, a map produced by theGenoese mapmakerVisconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position.[15] Furthermore, the island ofBarbuda in theLeewards is very similar in name and was once named "Las Barbudas" by the Spanish.[citation needed]
The original name for Barbados in thePre-Columbian era wasIchirouganaim, according to accounts by descendants of the IndigenousArawakan-speaking tribes in other regional areas, with possible translations including "Red land with white teeth"[16] or "Redstone island with teeth outside (reefs)"[17] or simply "Teeth".[18][19][20]
Colloquially, Barbadians refer to their home island as "Bim" or other nicknames associated with Barbados, including "Bimshire". The origin is uncertain, but several theories exist. TheNational Cultural Foundation of Barbados says that "Bim" was a word commonly used byslaves, and that it derives from theIgbo termbém frombé mụ́ meaning "my home, kindred, kind";[21] the Igbo phoneme[e] in the Igbo orthography is very close to/ɪ/.[22] The name could have arisen due to the relatively large percentage ofIgbo slaves from modern-day southeasternNigeria arriving in Barbados in the 18th century.[23][24] The words "Bim" and "Bimshire" are recorded in theOxford English Dictionary andChambers Twentieth Century Dictionaries. Another possible source for "Bim" is reported to be in theAgricultural Reporter of 25 April 1868, where the Rev. N. Greenidge (father of one of the island's most famous scholars,Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge) suggested that Bimshire was "introduced by an old planter listing it as a county of England". Expressly named were "Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire and Bimshire".[21] Lastly, in theDaily Argosy (of Demerara, i.e. Guyana) of 1652, there is a reference to Bim as a possible corruption of "Byam", the name of a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as "Bims" and that this became a word for all Barbadians.[21]
Around 700,000 years ago, the island emerged from the ocean as a body of soft rock known as adiapir rose from the mantle beneath its present-day location. This process is still ongoing, raising Barbados at an average rate of 30 centimetres per thousand years.[25] Dozens of inland sea reefs still dominate coastal features within terraces and cliffs on the island.[25]
Archeological evidence suggests humans may have first settled or visited the islandc. 1600 BC.[26][27][28] More permanentAmerindian settlement of Barbados dates to about the 4th to 7th centuries AD, by a group known as theSaladoid-Barrancoid.[29] Settlements ofArawaks from South America appeared by around 800 AD and again in the 12th–13th century.[26] TheKalinago (called "Caribs" by the Spanish) visited the island regularly, although there is no evidence of permanent settlement.[30]
It is uncertain which European nation arrived first in Barbados, which probably would have been at some point in the 15th century or 16th century. One lesser-known source points to earlier revealed works antedating contemporary sources, indicating it could have been the Spanish.[7] Many, if not most, believe thePortuguese, en route to Brazil,[31][32] were the first Europeans to come upon the island. The island was largely ignored by Europeans, though Spanish slave raiding is thought to have reduced the native population, with many fleeing to other islands.[26][33]
The first English ship, which had arrived on 14 May 1625, was captained by John Powell. The first settlement began on 17 February 1627, near what is nowHoletown (formerly Jamestown, after King James I of England),[35] by a group led by John Powell's younger brother,Henry, consisting of 80 settlers and 10 Englishindentured labourers.[36] Some sources state that some Africans were among these first settlers.[26]
The settlement was established as aproprietary colony and funded by SirWilliam Courten, aCity of London merchant who acquired the title to Barbados and several other islands. The first colonists were actually tenants, and much of the profits of their labour returned to Courten and his company.[37] Courten's title was later transferred toJames Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle, in what was called the "Great Barbados Robbery".[38] Carlisle then chose as governorHenry Powell, who established theHouse of Assembly in 1639, in an effort to appease the planters, who might otherwise have opposed his controversial appointment.[26][39]
English tobacco planters and slaves in Barbados, 17th century
In the period 1640–1660, the West Indies attracted more than two-thirds of the total number of English emigrants to the Americas. By 1650, there were 44,000 settlers in the West Indies, as compared to 12,000 on theChesapeake and 23,000 inNew England. Most English arrivals were indentured. After five years of labour, they were given "freedom dues" of about £10, usually in goods. Before the mid-1630s, they also received 5 to 10 acres (2 to 4 hectares) of land, but after that time the island filled and there was no more free land. During theCromwellian era (1650s) this included a large number of prisoners-of-war, vagrants and people who were illicitly kidnapped, who were forcibly transported to the island and sold as servants. These last two groups were predominantly Irish, as several thousand were infamously rounded up by English merchants and sold into servitude in Barbados and other Caribbean islands during this period, a practice that came to be known as beingBarbadosed.[39][40] Cultivation ofsugar was thus handled primarily by European indentured labour until it became difficult to bring more indentured servants from England.[41]
Parish registers from the 1650s show that, for the white population, there were four times as many deaths as marriages. The mainstay of the infant colony's economy was the growth export of tobacco, but tobacco prices eventually fell in the 1630s as Chesapeake production expanded.[39]
Around the same time, fighting during theWar of the Three Kingdoms and theInterregnum spilled over into Barbados and Barbadian territorial waters. The island was notinvolved in the war until after the execution ofCharles I, when the island's government fell under the control of Royalists (ironically the Governor, Philip Bell, remaining loyal toParliament while the BarbadianHouse of Assembly, under the influence of Humphrey Walrond, supportedCharles II). To try to bring the recalcitrant colony to heel, theCommonwealth Parliament passed an act on 3 October 1650 prohibiting trade between England and Barbados, and because the island also traded with the Netherlands, furtherNavigation Acts were passed, prohibiting any but English vessels trading withDutch colonies. These acts were a precursor to theFirst Anglo-Dutch War. TheCommonwealth of England sent an invasion force under the command ofSir George Ayscue, which arrived in October 1651. Ayscue, with a smaller force that included Scottish prisoners, surprised a larger force of Royalists, but had to resort to spying and diplomacy ultimately. On 11 January 1652, the Royalists in the House of Assembly led byLord Willoughby surrendered, which marked the end of royalist privateering as a major threat.[42] The conditions of the surrender were incorporated into theCharter of Barbados (Treaty of Oistins), which was signed at the Mermaid's Inn,Oistins, on 17 January 1652.[43][44]
Starting withCromwell, a large percentage of the white labourer population were indentured servants and involuntarily transported people from Ireland. Irish servants in Barbados were often treated poorly, and Barbadian planters gained a reputation for cruelty.[45]: 55 The decreased appeal of an indenture on Barbados, combined with enormous demand for labour caused by sugar cultivation, led to the use of involuntary transportation to Barbados as a punishment for crimes, or for political prisoners, and also to the kidnapping of labourers who were deported to Barbados.[45]: 55 Irish indentured servants were a significant portion of the population throughout the period when white servants were used for plantation labour in Barbados, and while a "steady stream" of Irish servants entered the Barbados throughout the 17th century, Cromwellian efforts to pacify Ireland created a "veritable tidal wave" of Irish labourers who were sent to Barbados during the 1650s.[45]: 56 Due to inadequate historical records, the total number of Irish labourers sent to Barbados is unknown, and estimates have been "highly contentious".[45]: 56 While one historical source estimated that as many as 50,000 Irish people were deported to either Barbados or Virginia during the 1650s, this estimate is "quite likely exaggerated".[45]: 56 Another estimate that 12,000 Irish prisoners had arrived in Barbados by 1655 has been described as "probably exaggerated" by historian Richard B. Sheridan.[46]: 236 According to historianThomas Bartlett, it is "generally accepted" that approximately 10,000 Irish were deported to the West Indies and approximately 40,000 came as voluntary indentured servants, while many also travelled as voluntary, un-indentured emigrants.[47]: 256
The introduction ofsugar cane fromDutch Brazil in 1640 completely transformed society, the economy and the physical landscape. Barbados eventually had one of the world's biggest sugar industries.[48] One group instrumental in ensuring the early success of the industry was theSephardic Jews, who had originally been expelled from theIberian peninsula, to end up inDutch Brazil.[48] As the effects of the new crop increased, so did the shift in the ethnic composition of Barbados and surrounding islands.[39] The workable sugar plantation required a large investment and a great deal of heavy labour. At first, Dutch traders supplied the equipment, financing, and African slaves, in addition to transporting most of the sugar to Europe.[39][26] In 1644 the population of Barbados was estimated at 30,000, of which about 800 were of African ancestry, with the remainder mainly of English ancestry. These English smallholders were eventually bought out and the island filled up with large sugar plantations worked by African slaves.[26] By 1660 there was near parity with 27,000 Black people and 26,000 White people. By 1666 at least 12,000 white smallholders had been bought out, died, or left the island, many choosing to emigrate toJamaica or theAmerican Colonies (notably the Carolinas).[26] As a result, Barbados enacted aslave code as a way of legislatively controlling its enslaved Black population.[49] The law's text was influential in laws in other colonies.[50]
By 1680 there were 20,000 free whites and 46,000 enslaved Africans;[26] by 1724, there were 18,000 free whites and 55,000 enslaved Africans.[39]
Statue of Bussa, Bridgetown. Bussa led the largest slave rebellion in Barbadian history.
The harsh conditions endured by the slaves resulted in several planned slave rebellions, the largest of which wasBussa's rebellion in 1816 which was rapidly suppressed by the colonial authorities.[26] In 1819, another slave revolt broke out on Easter Day. The revolt was put down in blood, with heads being displayed on stakes. Nevertheless, the brutality of the repression shocked even England and strengthened the abolitionist movement.[51] Growing opposition to slavery led to its abolition in the British Empire in 1833.[26] Theplantocracy class retained control of political and economic power on the island, with most workers living in relative poverty.[26]
The1780 hurricane killed more than 4,000 people on Barbados.[52][53] In 1854, acholera epidemic killed more than 20,000 inhabitants.[54]
Deep dissatisfaction with the situation on Barbados led many to emigrate.[26][55] Things came to a head in the 1930s during theGreat Depression, as Barbadiansbegan demanding better conditions for workers, the legalisation of trade unions and a widening of the franchise, which at that point was limited to male property owners.[26] As a result of the increasing unrest the British sent a commission, called theWest Indies Royal Commission, or Moyne Commission, in 1938, which recommended enacting many of the requested reforms on the islands.[26] As a result, Afro-Barbadians began to play a much more prominent role in the colony's politics, with universal suffrage being introduced in 1950.[26]
Full internal self-government was enacted in 1961.[26] Barbados joined the short-lived BritishWest Indies Federation from 1958 to 1962, later gaining full independence on 30 November 1966.[26] Errol Barrow became the country's first prime minister. Barbados opted to remain within theCommonwealth of Nations.
The effect of political independence meant that the United Kingdom government ceased to having sovereignty over Barbados,Elizabeth II, instead, reigning in the country became theQueen of Barbados. Themonarch then was represented locally by agovernor-general.[59]
The Barrow government sought to diversify the economy away from agriculture, seeking to boost industry and the tourism sector. Barbados was also at the forefront of regional integration efforts, spearheading the creation ofCARIFTA andCARICOM.[26] The DLP lost the1976 Barbadian general election to the BLP underTom Adams. Adams adopted a more conservative and strongly pro-Western stance, allowing the Americans to use Barbados as the launchpad for theirinvasion of Grenada in 1983.[60] Adams died in office in 1985 and was replaced byHarold Bernard St. John; however, St. John lost the1986 Barbadian general election, which saw the return of the DLP under Errol Barrow, who had been highly critical of the US intervention in Grenada. Barrow, too, died in office, and was replaced byLloyd Erskine Sandiford, who remained Prime Minister until 1994.[citation needed]
On 20 September 2021, just over a full year after the announcement for the transition was made, theConstitution (Amendment) (No. 2) Bill, 2021 was introduced to the Parliament of Barbados. Passed on 6 October, the Bill made amendments to the Constitution of Barbados, introducing the office of thepresident of Barbados to replace the role ofElizabeth II as Queen of Barbados.[70] The following week, on 12 October 2021, incumbentGovernor-General of BarbadosSandra Mason was jointly nominated by the Prime Minister and Leader of the Opposition as candidate to be the firstpresident of Barbados,[71] and was subsequentlyelected on 20 October.[72] Mason took office on 30 November 2021.[73]Prince Charles, the heir apparent to the Barbadian Crown at the time, attended the swearing-in ceremony in Bridgetown at the invitation of the Government of Barbados.[74]
Queen Elizabeth sent a message of congratulations to President Mason and the people of Barbados, saying: "As you celebrate this momentous day, I send you and all Barbadians my warmest good wishes for your happiness, peace and prosperity in the future."[75]
A survey that was conducted between 23 October 2021 and 10 November 2021, by theUniversity of the West Indies showed 34% of respondents being in favour of transitioning to a republic, while 30% were indifferent. Notably, no overall majority was found in the survey; with 24% not indicating a preference and the remaining 12% being opposed to the removal of Queen Elizabeth.[76][77]
On 20 June 2022, a Constitutional Review Commission was formed and sworn in by Jeffrey Gibson (who at the time was serving temporarily as Acting President of Barbados) to review the Constitution of Barbados.[78]
The commission was given a 15-month timeline to complete its work, which included consulting the public about the new republic and drafting a constitution.[79] Thus, the CRC engaged the public in a number of public meetings, lectures, andTwitter Spaces.[80] The report was announced delayed by August 2023,[81] with the final report submitted 30 June 2024.[82]
Barbados is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, east of the otherWest Indies Islands. Barbados is the easternmost island in theLesser Antilles. It is 21 miles (34 kilometres) long and up to 23 km (14 mi) wide, covering an area of 439 km2 (169 sq mi).[83] It lies about 168 km (104 mi) east of both the countries ofSaint Lucia andSaint Vincent and the Grenadines; 180 km (110 mi) south-east ofMartinique and 400 km (250 mi) north-east ofTrinidad and Tobago. It is flat in comparison to its island neighbours to the west, theWindward Islands. The island rises gently to the central highland region known as Scotland District, with the highest point beingMount Hillaby 340 m (1,120 ft) above sea level.[26]
In Barbados,forest cover is around 15% of the total land area, equivalent to 6,300 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, which was unchanged from 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 6,300 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 0 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to beprimary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 5% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 1% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership, 0%private ownership and 99% with ownership listed as other or unknown.[84][85]
Barbados lies on the boundary of theSouth American and theCaribbean Plates.[86] Thesubduction of the South American Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate scrapes sediment from the South American Plate and deposits it above the subduction zone forming anaccretionary prism. The rate of this depositing of material allows Barbados to rise at a rate of about 25 mm (1 in) per 1,000 years.[87] This subduction meansgeologically the island is composed ofcoral roughly 90 m (300 ft) thick, where reefs formed above the sediment. The land slopes in a series of "terraces" in the west and goes into an incline in the east. A large proportion of the island is circled bycoral reefs.[26]
The erosion oflimestone in the northeast of the island, in the Scotland District, has resulted in the formation of variouscaves andgullies. On theAtlantic east coast of the islandcoastal landforms, includingstacks, have been created due to the limestone composition of the area. Also notable in the island is the rocky cape known asPico Teneriffe[88] or Pico de Tenerife, which is named after the fact that the island ofTenerife in Spain is the first land east of Barbados according to the belief of the locals.[citation needed]
The country generally experiences two seasons, one of which includes noticeably higher rainfall. Known as the "wet season", this period runs from June to December. By contrast, the "dry season" runs from December to May. Annual precipitation ranges between 1,000 and 2,300 mm (40 and 90 in).From December to May the average temperatures range from 21 to 31 °C (70 to 88 °F), while between June and November, they range from 23 to 31 °C (73 to 88 °F).[89]
Infrequent natural hazards include earthquakes,landslips, andhurricanes. Barbados lies outside theMain Development Region fortropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic, and is often spared the worst effects of the region's storms during the rainy season. On average, a major hurricane makeslandfall in Barbados about once every 26 years. The last significant hit from a hurricane to cause severe damage to Barbados wasHurricane Janet in 1955; in 2010 the island was struck byHurricane Tomas, but this caused only minor damage across the country as it was only at Tropical Storm strength at the time of impact.[90]
Barbados, seen from theInternational Space StationBarbados is the twentieth most water stressed country in the world.
Barbados is susceptible to environmental pressures. As one of the world's mostdensely populated isles, the government worked during the 1990s[91] to aggressively integrate the growing south coast of the island into the Bridgetown Sewage Treatment Plant to reduce contamination of offshore coral reefs.[92][93] As of the first decade of the 21st century, a second treatment plant has been proposed along the island's west coast. Being so densely populated, Barbados has made great efforts to protect its undergroundaquifers.[94]
As a coral-limestone island, Barbados is highly permeable to seepage of surface water into the earth. The government has placed great emphasis on protecting the catchment areas that lead directly into the huge network of underground aquifers and streams.[94] On occasion illegal squatters have breached these areas, and the government has removed squatters to preserve the cleanliness of the underground springs which provide the island's drinking water.[95]
The government has placed a huge emphasis on keeping Barbados clean with the aim of protecting the environment and preserving offshore coral reefs which surround the island.[96] Many initiatives to mitigate human pressures on the coastal regions of Barbados and seas come from the Coastal Zone Management Unit (CZMU).[97][98] Barbados has nearly 56 miles (90 kilometres) of coral reefs just offshore and two protected marine parks have been established off the west coast.[99] Overfishing is another threat which faces Barbados.[100]
Although on the opposite side of the Atlantic, and some 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometres) west of Africa, Barbados is one of many places in the American continent that experience heightened levels ofmineral dust from theSahara Desert.[101] Some particularly intense dust episodes have been blamed partly for the impacts on the health of coral reefs[102] surrounding Barbados orasthmatic episodes,[103] but evidence has not wholly supported the former claim.[104]
Access tobiocapacity in Barbados is much lower than world average. In 2016, Barbados had 0.17 global hectares[105] of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.[106] In 2016 Barbados used 0.84 global hectares of biocapacity per person - theirecological footprint of consumption. This means they use approximately five times as much biocapacity as Barbados contains. As a result, Barbados is running a biocapacity deficit.[105]
Barbados is host to four species of nesting turtles (green turtles,loggerheads,hawksbill turtles, andleatherbacks) and has the second-largest hawksbill turtle-breeding population in the Caribbean.[107] The driving of vehicles on beaches can crush nests buried in the sand and such activity is discouraged in nesting areas.[108]
Barbados is also the host to thegreen monkey. The green monkey is found in West Africa from Senegal to the Volta River. It has been introduced to the Cape Verde islands off north-western Africa, and the West Indian islands of Saint Kitts, Nevis, Saint Martin, and Barbados. It was introduced to the West Indies in the late 17th century when slave trade ships travelled to the Caribbean from West Africa. The green monkey is considered a very curious and mischievous/troublesome animal by locals.[109][110]
The 2010 national census conducted by the Barbados Statistical Service reported a resident population of 277,821, of which 144,803 were female and 133,018 were male.[111]
The life expectancy for Barbados residents as of 2020[update] is 80 years. The average life expectancy is 83 years for females and 79 years for males (2020).[1] Barbados and Japan have the highest per capita occurrences ofcentenarians in the world.[112]
The crude birth rate is 12.23 births per 1,000 people, and the crude death rate is 8.39 deaths per 1,000 people. The infant mortality rate was 11.057 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 2021, according to UNICEF.[113][114]
Close to 90% of all Barbadians (also known colloquially as "Bajan") are ofAfro-Caribbean ancestry ("Afro-Bajans") and mixed ancestry. The remainder of the population includes groups of Europeans ("Anglo-Bajans" / "Euro-Bajans") mainly from the United Kingdom, Portugal, Ireland, Germany, and Italy.[citation needed] Other European groups consisted of the French, Austrians, Spaniards, and Russians. Asians, predominantly from Hong Kong and India (both Hindu and Muslim) make up less than 1% of the population.Other groups in Barbados include people from the United States and Canada. Barbadians who return after years of residence in the United States and children born in the United States to Bajan parents are called "Bajan Yankees", a term considered derogatory by some.[115] Generally, Bajans recognise and accept all "children of the island" as Bajans, and refer to each other as such.[citation needed]
The biggest communities outside the Afro-Caribbean community are:
TheIndo-Guyanese, an important part of the economy due to the increase of immigrants from partner country[clarification needed]Guyana. There are reports of a growingIndo-Bajans diaspora originating from Guyana and India starting around 1990. Predominantly from southern India, they are growing in size but are smaller than the equivalent communities in Trinidad and Guyana.[116][26] The Muslim Barbadians of Indian origin are largely ofGujarati ancestry. Many small businesses in Barbados are run and operated by Muslim-Indian Bajans.[117][118]
Euro-Bajans (5% of the population)[1] have settled in Barbados since the 17th century, originating from England, Ireland, Portugal, and Scotland. In 1643, there were 37,200 whites in Barbados (86% of the population).[119] More commonly they are known as "White Bajans". Euro-Bajans introduced folk music, such asIrish music and Highland music, and certain place names, such as "Scotland District", a hilly region in the parish of St. Andrew. Among White Barbadians there exists an underclass known asRedlegs comprising followers of theDuke of Monmouth after his defeat at theBattle of Sedgemoor, as well as the descendants ofIrish indentured labourers and prisoners imported to the island.[120] Many additionally moved on to become the earliest settlers of modern-dayNorth andSouth Carolina in the United States. Today the Redlegs number only around 400.[121]
Chinese-Barbadians are a small portion of Barbados's wider Asian population.[26] Chinese food and culture is becoming part of everyday Bajan culture.[citation needed]
Lebanese and Syrians form the island'sArab Barbadian community.[26]
Jews arrived in Barbados just after the first settlers in 1627. Bridgetown is the home ofNidhe Israel Synagogue, one of the oldest Jewish synagogues in the Americas, dating from 1654, though the current structure was erected in 1833, replacing one ruined by the hurricane of 1831.[122] Tombstones in the neighbouring cemetery date from the 1630s. Now under the care of the Barbados National Trust,[123] the site was deserted in 1929 but was saved and restored by the Jewish community beginning in 1986.[citation needed]
In the 17th century,Romani people were sent from the United Kingdom to work as slaves in the plantations in Barbados.[124]
English is theofficial language of Barbados, and is used for communications, administration, and public services all over the island. In its capacity as the official language of the country, the standard of English tends to conform to vocabulary, pronunciations, spellings, and conventions akin to, but not exactly the same as, those ofBritish English. For most Barbadians, however,Bajan Creole is the language of everyday life, despite remaining primarily oral and lacking a standardised written form.[125]
The state is consideredsecular, guaranteeingfreedom of religion or belief to all and featuring only symbolic allusions to a higher power in the preamble to the constitution.[128] Nearly half (45.5%) of all Barbadians reportedno religious affiliation whatsoever in the 2021 Census.[131]
TheConstitution of Barbados is the supreme law of the country.[134] Legislation is passed by the Parliament of Barbados but does not have the force of law unless the President grants her assent to that law. The right to withhold assent is absolute and cannot be overridden by Parliament.[135] The Attorney General is the principal legal adviser to the government (according to s.72(1) of the Constitution.[136] Theindependent judiciary, known as the Judicature, is established by s79C of the Constitution.[137]
During the 1990s, at the suggestion ofTrinidad and Tobago'sPatrick Manning, Barbados attempted apolitical union with Trinidad and Tobago andGuyana. The project stalled after the then prime minister of Barbados,Lloyd Erskine Sandiford, became ill and hisDemocratic Labour Party lost the next general election.[138][139] Barbados continues to share close ties with Trinidad and Tobago and with Guyana, claiming the highest number of Guyanese immigrants after the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom.
According toInternational IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Barbados performs in the mid to high range on overall democratic measures, with particular strengths in gender equality, inclusive suffrage, and freedom of expression.[141][142][143]
Barbados functions as atwo-party system. The dominant political parties are theDemocratic Labour Party and the incumbentBarbados Labour Party. Since independence on 30 November 1966, the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) has governed from 1966 to 1976; 1986 to 1994; and from 2008 to 2018; and the Barbados Labour Party (BLP) has governed from 1976 to 1986; 1994 to 2008; and from 2018 to present.[citation needed][144]
Trade policy has also sought to protect a small number of domestic activities, mostly food production, from foreign competition, while recognising that most domestic needs are best met by imports.[149]
TheBarbados Defence Force has roughly 800 members. Within it, service members aged 14 to 18 years make up the Barbados Cadet Corps. The defence preparations of the island nation are closely tied to defence treaties with the United Kingdom, the United States, the People's Republic of China,[150] andother eastern Caribbean countries.
Historically, the economy of Barbados was dependent onsugarcane cultivation and related activities, but since the late 1970s and early 1980s it has diversified into the manufacturing and tourism sectors.[26] Offshore finance and information services have become important foreign exchange earners.[158]
Partly due to the staging of the 2007 Cricket World Cup, the island saw a construction boom, with the development and redevelopment of hotels, office complexes, and homes.[159] This slowed during the 2008 to 2012 world economic crisis and the recession.[160]
The economy was strong between 1999 and 2000 but entered a recession in 2001 and 2002 due to decreases in tourism andconsumer spending and the impact of the11 September 2001 attacks in the United States and the7 July 2005 London bombings in the United Kingdom. The economy rebounded in 2003 and grew from 2004 to 2008. The economy went into recession again from 2008 to 2013 before growing from 2014 to 2017. Then it declined to another recession from 2017 to 2019 during the world economic crisis. There were 23 downgrades by both Standard & Poor's and Moody's in 2016, 2017 and 2018. The economy showed signs of recovery with 3 upgrades from Standard and Poor's and Moody's in 2019. From 1 January to 31 March 2020 the economy had started to grow, but then it experienced another decline due to theCOVID-19 economic recession.[citation needed]
Traditional trading partners include Canada, theCaribbean Community (especiallyTrinidad and Tobago), the United Kingdom, and the United States. Recent government administrations have continued efforts to reduce unemployment, encourageforeign direct investment, and privatise remaining state-owned enterprises. Unemployment dropped to 10.7% in 2003.[1] However, it has since increased to 11.9% in second quarter, 2015.[161]
The European Union is assisting Barbados with a€10 million program of modernisation of the country's International Business and Financial Services Sector.[162]
Barbados maintains the third largeststock exchange in the Caribbean region. As of 2009[update], officials at the stock exchange were investigating the possibility of augmenting the local exchange with an International Securities Market (ISM) venture.[163]
By May 2018, Barbados's outstanding debt had climbed toUS$7.5 billion, more than 1.7 times the country'sGDP. In June 2018 the government defaulted on its sovereign debt when it failed to make a coupon onEurobonds maturing in 2035. Outstanding bond debt of Barbados reachedUS$4.4 billion.[164]
In October 2019, Barbados concluded restructuring negotiations with a creditor group including investments fundsEaton Vance Management,Greylock Capital Management, Teachers Advisors, and Guyana Bank for Trade and Industry. Creditors will exchange existing bonds for a new debt series maturing in 2029. The new bonds involve a principal "haircut" of approximately 26% and include a clause allowing for deferment of principal and capitalisation of interest in the event of a natural disaster.[165][166]
The main hospital on the island is theQueen Elizabeth Hospital; however, Barbados has eight polyclinics across five parishes. There are also well-known medical care centres in Barbados such as Bayview Hospital, Sandy Crest Medical Centre and FMH Emergency Medical Clinic, and Urgent Care.[167][168]
The Barbadosliteracy rate is ranked close to 100%.[169][26] The mainstream public education system of Barbados is fashioned after the British model. The government of Barbados spends 6.7% of its GDP on education (2008).[1]
All young people in the country must attend school until age 16. Barbados has over 70 primary schools and over 20 secondary schools throughout the island. There are a number of private schools, including those offeringMontessori andInternational Baccalaureate education. Student enrolment at these schools represents less than 5% of the total enrolment of the public schools.[170]
Barbados is a blend of West African,Portuguese, Creole,Indian andBritish cultures. Citizens are officially called Barbadians, but are colloquially known as "Bajans" (pronounced ˈbājənz). This term evolved from "Badian" (a shortening of "Barbadian") during the 19th century.[171][172]
The largestcarnival-like cultural event that takes place on the island is theCrop Over festival, which was established first in 1687 and reintroduced in 1974. As in many other Caribbean and Latin American countries, Crop Over is an important event for many people on the island, as well as the thousands of tourists that flock to there to participate in the annual events.[26] The festival includes musical competitions and other traditional activities, and features the majority of the island's homegrowncalypso andsoca music for the year. The male and female Barbadians who harvested the most sugarcane are crowned as the King and Queen of the crop.[173] Crop Over gets under way at the beginning of July and ends with the costumed parade on Kadooment Day, held on the first Monday of August. New calypso/soca music is usually released and played more frequently from the beginning of May to coincide with the start of the festival.[170]
Barbadian art has evolved over the centuries, influenced by the island's complex history, which includes Indigenous cultures, colonial periods, and the subsequent emergence of a vibrant post-colonial identity. The interplay of African, European, and Caribbean influences has given rise to a unique artistic heritage that continues to inspire contemporary artists.[174]
The latter part of the 20th century and into the 21st century witnessed a cultural renaissance in Barbadian art now documented by Raskal Magazine. Artists began to explore diverse mediums and techniques, blending traditional practices with contemporary expressions. This period of experimentation contributed to the dynamic and multifaceted nature of Barbadian art, reflecting the island's openness to cultural exchange and adaptation.
Barbadian artists, mindful of their place within the global art community, began to engage with international artistic trends. This global perspective led to a cross-pollination of ideas, as artists drew inspiration from diverse sources while simultaneously contributing to the broader discourse on Caribbean and diasporic art.
Bajan cuisine is a mixture ofAfrican,Indian,Irish,Creole andBritish influences. A typical meal consists of a main dish of meat or fish, normally marinated with a mixture of herbs and spices, hot side dishes, and one or more salads. A common Bajan side dish could be pickled cucumber, fish cakes, bake, etc. The meal is usually served with one or more sauces.[175] Thenational dish of Barbados iscou-cou andflying fish with spicy gravy.[176] Another traditional meal is pudding and souse, a dish of pickledpork with spiced sweet potatoes.[177] A wide variety of seafood and meats are also available.[178]
TheMount Gay Rum visitor's centre in Barbados claims to be the world's oldest remaining rum company, with the earliest confirmed deed from 1703.Cockspur Rum andMalibu are also from the island. Barbados is home to theBanks Barbados Brewery, which brews Banks Beer, apale lager, as well as BanksAmber Ale.[179] Banks also brews Tiger Malt, a non-alcoholicmalted beverage. 10 Saints beer is brewed inSpeightstown, St. Peter in Barbados and aged for 90 days in Mount Gay 'Special Reserve' Rum casks. It was first brewed in 2009 and is available in certain Caricom nations.[180]
Barbadian folk traditions include theLandship movement, which is a satirical, informal organization based on theRoyal Navy,tea meetings,tuk bands and numerous traditional songs and dances. In modern Barbados, popular styles includecalypso,spouge,contemporary folk andworld music. Barbados is, along with Guadeloupe, Martinique, Trinidad, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, one of the few centres for Caribbean jazz.[181]
In 2021,Rihanna was appointed as a National Hero of the country by Prime Minister Mia Mottley, during its presidential inauguration, which served to mark the country becoming a republic.[182][183]
Polo is very popular among the rich elite on the island and the "High-Goal" Apes Hill team is based at the St James's Club.[188]
Kensington Oval inBridgetown hosted the2007 Cricket World Cup final. Cricket is one of the most followed games in Barbados and Kensington Oval is often referred to as the "Mecca in Cricket" due to its significance and contributions to the sport.
In golf, theBarbados Open, played at Royal Westmoreland Golf Club, was an annual stop on theEuropean Seniors Tour from 2000 to 2009. In December 2006 theWGC-World Cup took place at the country'sSandy Lane resort on the Country Club course, an 18-hole course designed byTom Fazio. The Barbados Golf Club is another course on the island.
Volleyball is also popular and is mainly played indoors.[189]
The presence of the trade winds along with favourable swells make the southern tip of the island an ideal location for wave sailing (an extreme form of the sport ofwindsurfing)
Netball is also popular with women in Barbados.[192]
Each March, the Barbados Surf Pro surfing contest is held in Bathsheba. It is the season-ending event for the World Surf League's North American qualifying series.[194]
A Hino ACME Minibus B 163 in Speightstown, St. Peter, Barbados
Although Barbados is about 34 km (21 mi) across at its widest point, a car journey from Six Cross Roads in St. Philip (south-east) to North Point in St. Lucy (north-central) can take one and a half hours or longer due to traffic. Barbados has half as many registered cars as citizens. In Barbados, drivers drive on the left side of the road.[195]
Barbados is known for its many roundabouts. One famous roundabout is located east of Bridgetown and holds the Emancipation Statue of the slaveBussa.[196]
Transport on the island is relatively convenient with "route taxis" called "ZRs" (pronounced "Zed-Rs") travelling to most points on the island. These small buses can at times be crowded, as passengers are generally never turned down regardless of the number. They will usually take the more scenic routes to destinations. They generally depart from the capitalBridgetown or fromSpeightstown in the northern part of the island.[197]
Including the ZRs, there are three bus systems running seven days a week (though less frequently on Sundays). There are ZRs, the yellow minibuses and the blueTransport Board buses. A ride on any of them costs Bds$ 3.5.[198] The smaller buses from the two privately owned systems ("ZRs" and "minibuses") can give change; the larger blue buses from the government-operatedBarbados Transport Board system cannot, but do give receipts. The Barbados Transport Board buses travel in regular bus routes and scheduled timetables across Barbados. Schoolchildren in school uniform including some Secondary schools ride for free on the government buses and for Bds$ 2.5 on the ZRs. Most routes require a connection in Bridgetown. Barbados Transport Board's headquarters are located at Kay's House, Roebuck Street, St. Michael, and the bus depots and terminals are located in the Fairchild Street Bus Terminal in Fairchild Street and the Princess Alice Bus Terminal (which was formerly the Lower Green Bus Terminal in Jubilee Gardens, Bridgetown, St. Michael) in Princess Alice Highway, Bridgetown, St. Michael; the Speightstown Bus Terminal in Speightstown, St. Peter; the Oistins Bus Depot in Oistins, Christ Church; and the Mangrove Bus Depot in Mangrove, St. Philip. In July 2020, theBarbados Transport Board received 33BYD electric buses which were obtained not only to add to the ageing fleet of diesel buses but also to assist the Government in their goal of eliminating the use offossil fuels by 2030.[199][200]
Some hotels also provide visitors with shuttles to points of interest on the island from outside the hotel lobby. There are several locally owned and operated vehicle rental agencies in Barbados but there are no multi-national companies.[201]
The island's lone airport is theGrantley Adams International Airport. It receives daily flights by several major airlines from points around the globe,[202][203] as well as several smaller regional commercial airlines and charters.[204][205] The airport serves as a southern air-transportation hub for the Caribbean.[206] It underwent aUS$100 million upgrade and expansion from 2003 to 2006.[207] In 2023, it began conversion of its former Concorde terminal and museum to a new departure terminal,[208] and in December 2023, Prime MinisterMia Mottley announced the negotiations for aUS$300 million for additional airport development.[209]
The Bridgetown seaport is the primary port of call for commercial container and cruise traffic.[210][211] Maritime traffic is managed by theBarbados Port Inc., formally Barbados Port Authority.[212]
^Belle, Nicole; Bramwell, Bill (1 August 2005). "Climate Change and Small Island Tourism: Policy Maker and Industry Perspectives in Barbados".Journal of Travel Research.44:34–38.doi:10.1177/0047287505276589.ISSN0047-2875.S2CID154912745.
^Dr Ainslie (1816). Dr Ainslie (ed.)."To the Editor of the Colonial Journal".The Colonial Journal (1). London: G. Davidson: 104.Archived from the original on 18 April 2023. Retrieved4 April 2023.
^Barbados – Geography / History. Fun 'N' Sun Publishing Inc. 2008. Archived from the original on 13 December 2010. Retrieved14 May 2010.
^Faria, Norman (17 June 2009)."Guyana Consul (Barbados) Visit to Former Amerindian Village Site in B'dos"(PDF).Guyana Chronicle. Pan-Tribal Confederacy of Indigenous Tribal Nations. p. 2. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 24 May 2016. Retrieved14 May 2010.Adjacent to the park, there is still a fresh water stream. This as a main reason the village was here. A hundred or so metres away is the sea and a further five hundred metres [550 yd] out across a lagoon was the outlying reef where the Atlantic swells broke on the coral in shallow waters. As an aside, the word "Ichirouganaim", said to be an Arawak word used by the Amerindians to describe Barbados, is thought to refer to the "teeth" imagery of the waves breaking on the reefs off most of southern and eastern coasts.
^Drewett, Peter (2000).Prehistoric Settlements in the Caribbean: Fieldwork on Barbados, Tortola and the Cayman Islands. Archetype Publications Ltd.ISBN1-873132-22-0.
^Drewett, Peter (1993). "Excavations at Heywoods, Barbados, and the Economic Basis of the Suazoid Period in the Lesser Antilles",Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 38:113–137.
^Fitzpatrick, Scott M., "A critical approach to c14 dating in the Caribbean",Latin American Antiquity, 17 (4), pp. 389 ff.
^Beckles, Hilary McD.A History of Barbados: From Amerindian Settlement to Caribbean Single Market (Cambridge University Press, 2007 edition).
^Watson, Karl (1997). "A brief history of Barbados". InAli, Arif (ed.).Barbados. Hansib.
^Marjoleine Kars (2020). "2 – Labor Camps in the Making".Blood on the River. New York: The New Press. pp. 39–40.developed sugar plantations on the islands of Barbados and Jamaica, first with indentured and convict laborers from England and then, when that supply dried up, with enslaved Africans
^Blakemore, Richard J. and Murphy, Elaine. (2018).The British Civil Wars at Sea, 1638–1653. Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press. p. 170.ISBN9781783272297.
^Bartlett, Thomas."'This famous island set in a Virginian sea': Ireland in the British Empire, 1690–1801". In Marshall, P. J.; Low, Alaine; and Louis, William Roger (1998). P. J. Marshall and Alaine Low (eds.).The Oxford History of the British Empire. Volume II: The Eighteenth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
^abAli, Arif (1997).Barbados: Just Beyond Your Imagination. Hansib Publishing (Caribbean) Ltd. pp. 46, 48.ISBN1-870518-54-3.
^Jerome Handler,New West Indian Guide 91 (2017) 30–55
^Madden, Marlon, ed. (17 September 2020)."Wickham predicts Barbados' republic model to mirror Trinidad's". Top Featured Article. Barbados Today.Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved4 June 2021.As Barbados prepares to ditch the Queen as its Head of State and become a republic, a prominent political scientist is predicting that Prime Minister Mia Mottley will follow the Trinidad and Tobago model. What's more, Peter Wickham has shot down any idea of the Barbados Labour Party administration holding a referendum on the matter, saying that to do so would be a 'mistake'. 'There is no need to and I don't think it makes a lot of sense. We had a situation where since 1999 this [political party] indicated its desire to go in the direction of a republic. The Opposition has always supported it ... So, I think there is enough cohesion in that regard to go with it,' he said.
^Logan, Gabi."Geologic History of Barbados Beaches".USA Today.Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved2 July 2011.Barbados lies directly over the intersection of the Caribbean Plate and the South American Plate in a region known as a subduction zone. Beneath the ocean floor, the South American Plate slowly slides below the Caribbean Plate.
^"Barbados Sightseeing – Animal Flower Cave".Leigh Designs. Little Bay House. 2010.Archived from the original on 12 December 2011. Retrieved10 July 2011.The Animal flower Cave is the island's lone accessible sea-cave and was discovered from the sea in 1780 by two English explorers. The cave's coral floor is estimated to be 400,000 to 500,000 years old and the "younger" coral section above the floor is about 126,000 years old. The dating was carried out by the German Geographical Institute, and visitors can see a "map" of the dating work in the bar and restaurant. The cave now stands some six feet above the high tide mark even though it was formed at sea level. This is because Barbados is rising about one inch per 1,000 years, which is yet another indication of the cave's age.
^Sealy, Shane; Wood, Chris (14 October 2014)."CBC Barbados – Monkey on the Evening News".CBC TV-8 News. Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation (published 8 October 2014).Archived from the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved9 March 2024.
^2010 Population and Housing Census(PDF) (Report). Vol. 1. Barbados Statistical Service. September 2013. p. i. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 18 January 2017. Retrieved17 November 2016.
^"Remnants of an indentured people".The Irish Times. 19 December 2009.Archived from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved23 January 2019.Today, behind the facade of a lush green, rural setting, the descendants of those transported still remain – a poor, white population of around 400 known as the Red Legs.
^"Baha'u'llah". Bci.org.Archived from the original on 28 August 2010. Retrieved4 July 2010.
^"Barbados – 2022 World Factbook (Archive)". Central Intelligence Agency. 2022. Religions. Retrieved10 August 2025.Protestant 66.4% (includes Anglican 23.9%, other Pentecostal 19.5%, Adventist 5.9%, Methodist 4.2%, Wesleyan 3.4%, Nazarene 3.2%, Church of God 2.4%, Baptist 1.8%, Moravian 1.2%, other Protestant 0.9%), Roman Catholic 3.8%, other Christian 5.4% (includes Jehovah's Witness 2.0%, other 3.4%), Rastafarian 1%, other 1.5%, none 20.6%, unspecified 1.2% (2010 est.)
^"TRADE POLICY REVIEW BARBADOS". p. 7. Archived fromthe original on 3 June 2023.Trade policy has also sought to protect a small number of domestic activities, mostly food production, from foreign competition, while recognizing that most domestic needs are best met by imports.
^"Barbados".United States Department of State.Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved15 October 2023.
^Morris, Roy (2 January 2006)."Builders paradise".The Nation Newspaper. Archived fromthe original on 4 January 2006. Retrieved29 July 2009.Industry sources are warning, however, that while the boom will bring many jobs and much income, ordinary Barbadians hoping to undertake home construction or improvement will be hard pressed to find materials or labour, given the large number of massive commercial projects with which they will have to compete. ... Construction magnate Sir Charles 'COW' Williams, agreeing that this year will be "without doubt" the biggest ever for the island as far as construction was concerned, revealed that his organisation was in the final stages of the construction of a newUS$6 million plant at Lears, St Michael to double its capacity to produce concrete blocks, as well as a newUS$2 million plant to supply ready-mixed concrete from its fleet of trucks. "The important thing to keep in mind is that the country will benefit tremendously from a massive injection of foreign exchange from people who want to own homes here," Sir Charles said.
Gragg, Larry Dale,Englishmen transplanted: The English Colonization of Barbados, 1627–1660. Oxford University Press, 2003.ISBN978-0199253890
Hamshere, Cyril,The British in the Caribbean. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972.
Newman, Simon P.A New World of Labor: The Development of Slavery in the British Atlantic. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013.ISBN978-0812245196
O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson,An Empire Divided: The American Revolution and the British Caribbean. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000.ISBN978-0812217322
Rogozinski, January 1999.A Brief History of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and Carib to the Present. Revised version, New York, USA.ISBN0-8160-3811-2
†Physiographically, thesecontinental islands are not part of the volcanic Windward Islands arc, although sometimes grouped with them culturally and politically.
#Bermuda is an isolatedNorth Atlanticoceanic island, physiographically not part of the Lucayan Archipelago, Antilles, Caribbean Sea nor North American continental nor South American continental islands. It is grouped with theNorthern American region, but occasionally also with the Caribbean region culturally.
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