Ballet (French:[balɛ]) is a type ofperformance dance that originated during theItalian Renaissance in the fifteenth century and later developed into aconcert dance form in France and Russia. It has since become a widespread and highly technical form of dance withits own vocabulary. Ballet has been influential globally and has defined the foundationaltechniques which are used in many other dance genres and cultures. Various schools around the world have incorporated their own cultures. As a result, ballet has evolved in distinct ways.
Aballet as a unifiedwork comprises thechoreography andmusic for a ballet production. Ballets are choreographed and performed by trainedballet dancers. Traditionalclassical ballets are usually performed withclassical music accompaniment and use elaborate costumes and staging, whereas modern ballets are often performed in simple costumes and without elaborate sets or scenery.
Etymology
Ballet is a French word which had its origin in Italianballetto, adiminutive ofballo (dance) which comes fromLatinballo,ballare, meaning "to dance",[1][2] which in turn comes from theGreek "βαλλίζω" (ballizo), "to dance, to jump about".[2][3] The word came into English usage from the French around 1630.
In French, the word refers to a ballet performance, a ballet work, and possibly to the dance genre itself, although the expressiondanse classique also exists for the latter meaning, is less equivocal and is more commonly used when referring to the learning of this dance.[citation needed]
Ballet originated in theItalian Renaissance courts of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. UnderCatherine de' Medici's influence as Queen, it spread to France, where it developed even further.[4] The dancers in these earlycourt ballets were mostly noble amateurs. Ornamented costumes were meant to impress viewers, but they restricted performers' freedom of movement.[5]
The ballets were performed in large chambers with viewers on three sides. The implementation of theproscenium arch from 1618 on distanced performers from audience members, who could then better view and appreciate the technical feats of the professional dancers in the productions.[6][7]
French court ballet reached its height under the reign of KingLouis XIV. Louis founded theAcadémie Royale de Danse (Royal Dance Academy) in 1661 to establish standards and certify dance instructors.[8] In 1672, Louis XIV madeJean-Baptiste Lully the director of the Académie Royale de Musique (Paris Opera) from which the first professionalballet company, theParis Opera Ballet, arose.[9]Pierre Beauchamp served as Lully'sballet-master. Together their partnership would drastically influence the development of ballet, as evidenced by the credit given to them for the creation of the five major positions of the feet. By 1681, the first "ballerinas" took the stage following years of training at the Académie.[5]
Ballet started to decline in France after 1830, but it continued to develop in Denmark, Italy, and Russia. The arrival in Europe of theBallets Russes led bySergei Diaghilev on the eve of theFirst World War revived interest in the ballet and started the modern era.[10]
In the twentieth century, ballet had a wide influence on other dance genres,[11] Also in the twentieth century, ballet took a turn dividing it from classical ballet to the introduction ofmodern dance, leading to modernist movements in several countries.[12]
Stylistic variations and subgenres have evolved over time. Early, classical variations are primarily associated with geographic origin. Examples of this areRussian ballet,French ballet, andItalian ballet. Later variations, such as contemporary ballet and neoclassical ballet, incorporate both classical ballet and non-traditional technique and movement. Perhaps the most widely known and performed ballet style is lateRomantic ballet (orBallet blanc).[21]
TheValse des cygnes from Act II of the Ivanov/Petipa edition ofSwan Lake
Classical ballet is based on traditional ballettechnique and vocabulary.[22] Different styles have emerged in different countries, such asFrench ballet,Italian ballet,English ballet, andRussian ballet.[23] Several of the classical ballet styles are associated with specific training methods, typically named after their creators (see below). TheRoyal Academy of Dance method is a ballet technique and training system that was founded by a diverse group of ballet dancers. They merged their respective dance methods (Italian, French, Danish and Russian) to create a new style of ballet that is unique to the organization and is recognized internationally as the English style of ballet.[10] Some examples of classical ballet productions are:Swan Lake,The Sleeping Beauty andThe Nutcracker.[24]
Romantic ballet was an artistic movement of classical ballet and several productions remain in the classical repertoire today. The Romantic era was marked by the emergence ofpointe work, the dominance of female dancers, and longer, flowy tutus that attempt to exemplify softness and a delicate aura.[5] This movement occurred during the early to mid-nineteenth century (theRomantic era) and featured themes that emphasized intense emotion as a source ofaesthetic experience. The plots of many romantic ballets revolved around spirit women (sylphs, wilis, and ghosts) who enslaved the hearts and senses of mortal men. The 1827 balletLa Sylphide is widely considered to be the first, and the 1870 balletCoppélia is considered to be the last.[4] Famous ballet dancers of the Romantic era includeMarie Taglioni,Fanny Elssler, andJules Perrot. Jules Perrot is also known for his choreography, especially that ofGiselle, often considered to be the most widely celebrated romantic ballet.[5]
Neoclassical ballet is usually abstract, with no clear plot, costumes or scenery. Music choice can be diverse and will often includemusic that is also neoclassical (e.g.Stravinsky,Roussel). Tim Scholl, author ofFrom Petipa to Balanchine, considersGeorge Balanchine'sApollo in 1928 to be the first neoclassical ballet.Apollo represented a return to form in response toSergei Diaghilev's abstract ballets. Balanchine worked with modern dance choreographerMartha Graham, and brought modern dancers into his company such asPaul Taylor, who in 1959 performed in Balanchine'sEpisodes.[25]
While Balanchine is widely considered the face of neoclassical ballet, there were others who made significant contributions.Frederick Ashton'sSymphonic Variations (1946) is a seminal work for the choreographer. Set toCésar Franck's score of the same title, it is a pure-dance interpretation of the score.[5]
Another form,Modern Ballet, also emerged as an offshoot of neoclassicism. Among the innovators in this form wereGlen Tetley,Robert Joffrey andGerald Arpino. While difficult to parse modern ballet from neoclassicism, the work of these choreographers favored a greater athleticism that departed from the delicacy of ballet. The physicality was more daring, with mood, subject matter and music more intense. An example of this would be Joffrey'sAstarte (1967), which featured a rock score and sexual overtones in the choreography.[10]
A ballet jump performed with modern, non-classical form in a contemporary ballet
This ballet style is often performed barefoot.[26] Contemporary ballets may includemime andacting, and are usually set to music (typically orchestral but occasionally vocal). It can be difficult to differentiate this form from neoclassical or modern ballet. Contemporary ballet is also close tocontemporary dance because many contemporary ballet concepts come from the ideas and innovations of twentieth-century modern dance, including floor work and turn-in of the legs. The main distinction is that ballet technique is essential to perform a contemporary ballet.
George Balanchine is considered to have been a pioneer of contemporary ballet. Another early contemporary ballet choreographer,Twyla Tharp, choreographedPush Comes To Shove for theAmerican Ballet Theatre in 1976, and in 1986 createdIn The Upper Room for her own company. Both of these pieces were considered innovative for their melding of distinctly modern movements with the use of pointe shoes and classically trained dancers.
The termballet has evolved to include all forms associated with it. Someone training as a ballet dancer will now be expected to perform neoclassical, modern and contemporary work. A ballet dancer is expected to be able to be stately and regal for classical work, free and lyrical in neoclassical work, and unassuming, harsh or pedestrian for modern and contemporary work. In addition, there are several modern varieties of dance that fuse classical ballet technique with contemporary dance, such asHiplet, that require dancers to be practised in non-Western dance styles.[27]
Although preschool-age children are a lucrative source of income for a ballet studio, ballet instruction is generally not appropriate for young children.[30][failed verification] Initial instruction requires standing still and concentrating on posture, rather than dancing. Because of this, many ballet programs have historically not accepted students until approximately age 8. Creative movement and non-demanding pre-ballet classes are recommended as alternatives for children.[31][32]
French method
The French method is the basis of all ballet training. When Louis XIV created theAcadémie Royale de Danse in 1661, he helped to create the codified technique still used today by those in the profession, regardless of what method of training they adhere to. The French school was particularly revitalized underRudolf Nureyev, in the 1980s. His influence revitalized and renewed appreciation for this style, and has drastically shaped ballet as a whole.[33] In fact, the French school is now sometimes referred to as Nureyev school. The French method is often characterized by technical precision, fluidity and gracefulness, and elegant, clean lines. For this style, fast footwork is often utilized in order to give the impression that the performers are drifting lightly across the stage.[34] Two important trademarks of this technique are the specific way in which the port de bras and the épaulement are performed, more rounded than when dancing in a Russian style, but not as rounded as the Danish style.[35]
Vaganova method
Agrippina Vaganova, "Esmeralda" 1910
TheVaganova method is a style of ballet training that emerged fromRussian ballet, created byAgrippina Vaganova. After retiring from dance in 1916, Vaganova turned to teaching at the Leningrad Choreographic School in 1921. Her training method is now internationally recognized and her book,The Fundamentals of Classical Dance (1934), is a classic reference. This method is marked by the fusion of the classical French style, specifically elements from the Romantic era, with the athleticism of the Italian method, and the soulful passion of Russian ballet.[34] She developed an extremely precise method of instruction in her bookBasic Principles of Russian Classical dance (1948).[36] This includes outlining when to teach technical components to students in their ballet careers, for how long to focus on it, and the right amount of focus at each stage of the student's career. These textbooks continue to be extremely important to the instruction of ballet today.
The method emphasizes development of strength, flexibility, and endurance for the proper performance of ballet. She espoused the belief that equal importance should be placed on the arms and legs while performing ballet, as this will bring harmony and greater expression to the body as a whole.[37]
Cecchetti method
Enrico Cecchetti with Anna Pavlova
Developed byEnrico Cecchetti (1850–1928), this method is one known internationally for its intense reliance of the understanding of anatomy as it relates to classical ballet. The goal of this method is to instill important characteristics for the performance of ballet into students so that they do not need to rely on imitations of teachers. Important components for this method is the emphasis of balance, elevations,ballon, poise, and strength.[38]
This method espouses the importance of recognizing that all parts of the body move together to create beautiful, graceful lines, and as such cautions against thinking of ballet in terms of the arms, legs, and neck and torso as separate parts. This method is well known for eight port de bras that are utilized.[34]
Bournonville method
August Bournonville
The Bournonville method is a Danish method first devised byAugust Bournonville. Bournonville was heavily influenced by the early French ballet method due to his training with his father,Antoine Bournonville and other important French ballet masters. This method has many style differences that differentiate it from other ballet methods taught today.[39] A key component is the use of diagonal épaulements, with the upper body turning towards the working foot typically. This method also incorporates very basic use of arms, pirouettes from a low développé position into seconde, and use of fifth position bras en bas for the beginning and end of movements.
The Bournonville method produces dancers who have beautifulballon ("the illusion of imponderable lightness").[40]
The Royal Academy of Dance method (RAD)
Young girls competing at the Royal Academy of Dancing (London) exams held in Brisbane and Toowoomba, 1938
TheRoyal Academy of Dance method, also referred to as the English style of ballet, was established in 1920 by Genee, Karsavina, Bedells, E Espinosa, and Richardson. The goal of this method is to promote academic training in classical ballet throughout Great Britain. This style also spread to the United States, and is widely utilized still today. There are specific grade levels which a student must move through in order to complete training in this method.[41][42] The key principle behind this method of instruction is that basic ballet technique must be taught at a slow pace, with difficulty progression often much slower than the rest of the methods. The idea behind this is if a student is to put in a large amount of effort into perfecting the basic steps, the technique learned in these steps allow a student to utilize harder ones at a much easier rate.[34]
Developed byGeorge Balanchine at theNew York City Ballet. His method draws heavily on his own training as a dancer in Russia. The technique is known for extreme speed throughout routines, emphasis on lines, and deep pliés. Perhaps one of the most well known differences of this style is the unorthodox positioning of the body.[34] Dancers of this style often have flexed hands and even feet, and are placed in off-balance positions. Important ballet studios teaching this method are theMiami City Ballet, Ballet Chicago Studio company, and theSchool of American Ballet in New York.[43]
Costumes
Anna Pavlova (prima ballerina). Early materials for ballet costumes were heavy, hindering the dancer's movements.
Ballet costumes play an important role in the ballet community. They are often the only survival of a production, representing a living imaginary picture of the scene.[44]
Renaissance and Baroque
The roots of ballet go back to the Renaissance in France and Italy when court wear was the beginning of ballet costumes. Ballet costumes have been around since the early 15th century. Cotton and silk were mixed with flax, woven into semitransparent gauze[44] to create exquisite ballet costumes.
17th century
During the 17th century, different types of fabrics and designs were used to make costumes more spectacular and eye catching. Court dress still remained for women during this century. Silks, satins and fabrics embroidered with real gold and precious stones increased the level of spectacular decoration associated with ballet costumes.[44] Women's costumes also consisted of heavy garments and knee-long skirts which made it difficult for them to create much movement and gesture.
18th century
During the 18th century, stage costumes were still very similar to court wear but progressed over time, mostly due to the French dancer and ballet-masterJean-Georges Noverre (1727–1810) whose proposals to modernize ballet are contained in his revolutionaryLettres sur la danse et les ballets (1760). Noverre's book altered the emphasis in a production away from the costumes towards the physical movements and emotions of the dancers.
European ballet was centered in theParis Opera.[44] During this era, skirts were raised a few inches off the ground. Flowers, flounces, ribbons, and lace emphasized this opulent feminine style, as soft pastel tones in citron, peach, pink, andpistachio dominated the color range.[44]
19th century
Olga Spessiva; Swan Lake Costume in the 20th century
During the early 19th century, close-fitting body costumes, floral crowns, corsages, and jewels were used. Ideals of Romanticism were reflected through female movements.[44]
Costumes became much tighter as corsets started to come into use, to show off the curves on a ballerina. Jewels and bedazzled costumes became much more popular.
20th century
Maggie Gripenberg (in the middle) performing at theFinnish National Theatre in 1916Jeanne Devereaux (1912–2011) was a prima ballerina, starting as a child star at age 11, and continuing for the next four decades. In 1935, she performed in front ofKing George V andQueen Mary in a Royal Command Performance. No other American prima ballerina before had been asked to perform at such a prestigious event.[45]
During the 20th century, ballet costumes transitioned back to the influence of Russian ballet. Ballerina skirts became knee-length tutus, later on in order to show off their precise pointe work. Colors used on stage costumes also became much more vibrant. Designers used colors such as red, orange, yellow, etc. to create visual expression when ballet dancers perform on stage.
Ballet as a career
Professional dancers are generally not well paid, and earn less money than a typical worker.[46] As of 2020, American dancers (including ballet and other dance forms) were paid an average of US$19 per hour, with pay somewhat better for teachers than for performers.[46]
The job outlook is not strong, and the competition to get a job is intense, with the number of applicants vastly exceeding the number of job openings.[46] Most jobs involve teaching in privatedance schools.[46]
Choreographers are paid better than dancers.[46] Musicians and singers are paid better per hour than either dancers or choreographers, about US$30 per hour; however, full-time work is unusual for musicians.[47]
Health effects
Teenage girl ballet dancers are prone tostress fractures in thefirst rib.[48] Posterior ankle impingement syndrome (PAIS) most commonly affects people who perform repetitiveplantar flexion, such as ballet dancers.[49]Eating disorders are thought to be common, and a 2014 meta-analysis suggests that studies do indicate that ballet dancers are at higher risk than the general population for several kinds of eating disorders.[50] In addition, some researchers have noted that intensive training in ballet results in lowerbone mineral density in the arms.[51]
Criticism
Most ballet choreography is written so that it can only be performed by a relatively young dancer.[52] The structure of ballet – in which a (usually) male choreographer or director uses (mostly) women's bodies to express his artistic vision, has been criticized as harming women.[by whom?][53]
^Craine, Deborah; MacKrell, Judith (2000).The Oxford Dictionary of Dance.Oxford University Press. p. 2.ISBN978-0-19-860106-7.It is from this institution that French ballet has evolved rather than the Académie Royale de Danse.
^abcGreskovic, Robert (1998).Ballet 101: A Complete Guide to Learning and Loving the Ballet. New York, New York:Hyperion Books. pp. 46–57.ISBN978-0-7868-8155-0.
^Lesko, Kathleen Menzie.Jeanne Devereaux, Prima Ballerina of Vaudeville and Broadway, p. 2, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina, 2017.ISBN978-1-4766-6694-5.
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