Bahrain,[a] officially theKingdom of Bahrain,[b] is anisland country inWest Asia. Situated on thePersian Gulf, it comprises a smallarchipelago of 50 natural islands and an additional 33artificial islands, centred onBahrain Island, which makes up around 83 percent of the country's landmass. Bahrain is situated betweenQatar and the northeastern coast ofSaudi Arabia, to which it is connected by theKing Fahd Causeway. The population is 1,501,635 as of 2023, of whom 712,362 (47% of the population) are Bahraini nationals and 789,273 are expatriates spanning 2,000 ethnicities (53% of the population).[2] Bahrain spans some 760 square kilometres (290 sq mi)[17] and is thethird-smallest nation in Asia afterMaldives andSingapore.[18] The capital and largest city isManama.
Bahrain is thedual form of theArabic wordBahr (meaning literally "sea"), soal-Bahrayn originally means literally "the twoseas". However, the name has been lexicalised as a feminineproper noun and does not follow the grammatical rules for duals; thus its form is alwaysBahrayn and neverBahrān, the expected nominative form. Endings are added to the word with no changes, as in the name of the national anthemBahraynunā ("our Bahrain") or thedemonymBahraynī. The medieval grammarianal-Jawahari commented on this, saying that the more formally correct termBahrī (lit.'belonging to the sea') would have been misunderstood and so was unused.[29]
It remains disputed which "two seas" the nameBahrayn originally refers to.[30] The term appears five times in theQuran but does not refer to the modern island—originally known to the Arabs asAwal.[30] Today, Bahrain's "two seas" are generally taken to be the bay east and west of the island,[31] the seas north and south of the island,[32] or the salt and fresh water present above and below the ground. In addition to wells, there are areas of the sea north of Bahrain where fresh water bubbles up in the middle of the saltwater as noted by visitors since antiquity.[33] An alternative theory concerning Bahrain's toponymy is offered by the al-Ahsa region, which suggests that the two seas were the "Great Green Ocean" (thePersian Gulf) andAl-Asfar Lake on theArabian mainland.[citation needed]
Until the lateMiddle Ages, "Bahrain" referred to theregion of Eastern Arabia that included southernIraq,Kuwait,Al-Hasa,Qatif, and Bahrain. The region stretched fromBasra in Iraq to theStrait of Hormuz inOman. This was Iqlīm al-Bahrayn's "Bahrayn Province". When the term "Bahrain" began to refer solely to the Awal archipelago is unknown.[34] The entire coastal strip of Eastern Arabia was known as "Bahrain" for a millennium.[35] The island and kingdom were also commonly spelledBahrein.[20][36]
Bahrain was home toDilmun, an importantBronze Age trade centre linkingMesopotamia and theIndus Valley.[37] Bahrain was later ruled by theSumerians andBabylonians.[38] From the 6th to 3rd century BC, Bahrain was part of theAchaemenid Empire. By about 250 BC,Parthia brought the Persian Gulf under its control and extended its influence as far as Oman. The Parthians established garrisons along the southern coast of the Persian Gulf to control trade routes.[39]
During theclassical era, Bahrain was referred to by theancient Greeks asTylos, the centre of pearl trading, when the Greek admiralNearchus serving underAlexander landed on Bahrain.[40] Nearchus is believed to have been the first of Alexander's commanders to visit the island, and he found a verdant land that was part of a wide trading network; he recorded: "That on the island of Tylos, situated in the Persian Gulf, are large plantations of cotton trees, from which are manufactured clothes calledsindones, of strongly differing degrees of value, some being costly, others less expensive. The use of these is not confined to India, but extends to Arabia."[41] The Greek historianTheophrastus states that much of Bahrain was covered by these cotton trees and that Bahrain was famous for exporting walking canes engraved with emblems that were customarily carried in Babylon.[42] Alexander had planned to settle Greek colonists in Bahrain, and although it is not clear that this happened on the scale he envisaged, Bahrain became very much part of theHellenised world: the language of the upper classes was Greek (althoughAramaic was in everyday use). Local coinage shows a seated Zeus, who may have been worshipped there as a syncretised form of the Arabian sun-godShams.[43] Tylos was also the site of Greek athletic contests.[44]
The Greek historianStrabo believed thePhoenicians originated from Bahrain.[45]Herodotus also believed that the homeland of the Phoenicians was Bahrain.[46][47] This theory was accepted by the 19th-century German classicistArnold Heeren who said "In the Greek geographers, for instance, we read of two islands, named Tyrus or Tylos, andAradus, which boasted that they were the mother country of the Phoenicians, and exhibited relics of Phoenician temples."[48] The people ofTyre in particular have long maintainedPersian Gulf origins, and the similarity in the words "Tylos" and "Tyre" has been commented upon.[49] However, there is little evidence of any human settlement at all on Bahrain during the time when such migration had supposedly taken place.[50]
A 1745Bellin map of the historical region of BahrainMap showing the locations of theancient burial mounds. There are an estimated 350,000 burial mounds.
The name Tylos is thought to be a Hellenisation of the SemiticTilmun (fromDilmun).[51] The term Tylos was commonly used for the islands untilPtolemy'sGeographia when the inhabitants are referred to as Thilouanoi.[52] Some place names in Bahrain go back to the Tylos era; for instance the name of Arad, a residential suburb ofMuharraq, is believed to originate from "Arados", the ancient Greek name for Muharraq.[40]
In the 3rd century,Ardashir I, the first ruler of theSassanid dynasty, marched on Oman and Bahrain, where he defeated Sanatruq the ruler of Bahrain.[53]
Bahrain was the site of worship of an ox deity calledAwal (Arabic:اوال) Worshipers built a large statue to Awal inMuharraq, although it has now been lost. For many centuries afterTylos, Bahrain was known asAwal. By the 5th century, Bahrain became a centre forNestorian Christianity, with the villageSamahij[54] as the seat of bishops. In 410, according to the Oriental Syriac Church synodal records, a bishop named Batai was excommunicated from the church in Bahrain.[55] As a sect, the Nestorians were often persecuted as heretics by theByzantine Empire, but Bahrain was outside the empire's control, offering some safety. The names of severalMuharraq villages today reflect Bahrain's Christian legacy, withAl Dair meaning "the monastery".
Muhammad's first interaction with the people of Bahrain was theAl Kudr Invasion. Muhammad ordered a surprise attack on theBanu Salim tribe for plotting to attack Medina. He had received news that some tribes were assembling an army in Bahrain and preparing to attack the mainland, but the tribesmen retreated when they learned Muhammad was leading an army to do battle with them.[61][62]
In the year 899, theQarmatians, amillenarianIsmaili Muslim sect, seized Bahrain, seeking to create autopian society based on reason and redistribution of property among initiates. Thereafter, the Qarmatians demandedtribute from the caliph inBaghdad, and in 930sackedMecca, bringing the sacredBlack Stone back to their base inAhsa, in medieval Bahrain, for ransom. According to historianAl-Juwayni, the stone was returned 22 years later in 951 under mysterious circumstances. Wrapped in a sack, it was thrown into theGreat Mosque of Kufa in Iraq, accompanied by a note saying "By command we took it, and by command, we have brought it back." The theft and removal of the Black Stone caused it to break into seven pieces.[67][68][69]
Following their defeat in the year 976 by theAbbasids,[70] the Qarmatians were overthrown by the ArabUyunid dynasty ofal-Hasa, who took over the entire Bahrain region in 1076.[71] The Uyunids controlled Bahrain until 1235, when the archipelago was briefly occupied by the Persian ruler ofFars. In 1253, theUsfurids brought down the Uyunid dynasty, thereby gaining control over easternArabia, including the islands of Bahrain. In 1330, the archipelago became a tributary state of the rulers ofHormuz,[34] though locally the islands were controlled by the ShiaJarwanid dynasty ofQatif.[72]In the mid-15th century, the archipelago came under the rule of theJabrids, a Bedouin dynasty also based inAl-Ahsa that ruled most of eastern Arabia.[73]
In 1521, the Portuguese allied with Hormuz and seized Bahrain from theJabrid rulerMuqrin ibn Zamil, who was killed during the takeover. Portuguese rule lasted for around 80 years, during which time they depended mainly onSunni Persian governors.[34] The Portuguese were expelled from the islands in 1602 byAbbas I of theSafavid Iran,[74] which gave impetus toShia Islam.[75] For the next two centuries, Persian rulers retained control of the archipelago, interrupted by the 1717 and 1738 invasions of theIbadis of Oman.[76] During most of this period, they resorted to governing Bahrain indirectly, either through the city ofBushehr or throughimmigrant Sunni Arab clans. The latter were tribes returning to the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf from Persian territories in the north who were known asHuwala.[34][77][78] In 1753, the Huwala clan ofNasr Al-Madhkur invaded Bahrain on behalf of the IranianZand leaderKarim Khan Zand and restored direct Iranian rule.[78]
In 1783, Al-Madhkur lost the islands of Bahrain following his defeat by theBani Utbah clan and allied tribes at the 1782 Battle ofZubarah. Bahrain was not new territory to the Bani Utbah; they had been a presence there since the 17th century.[79] During that time, they started purchasing date palm gardens in Bahrain; a document shows that 81 years before the arrival of the Al Khalifa, one of the sheikhs of theAl Bin Ali tribe (an offshoot of the Bani Utbah) had bought a palm garden from Mariam bint Ahmed Al Sanadi inSitra island.[80]
Purple –Portuguese in the Persian Gulf in the 16th and 17th centuries (modern boundaries shown). Main cities, ports and routes.
The Al Bin Ali were the dominant group controlling the town of Zubarah on the Qatar peninsula,[81][82] originally the centre of power of the Bani Utbah. After the Bani Utbah gained control of Bahrain, the Al Bin Ali had a practically independent status there as a self-governing tribe. They used a flag with four red and three white stripes, called theAl-Sulami flag[83] in Bahrain, Qatar,Kuwait, and the Eastern province of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Later, different Arab family clans and tribes from Qatar moved to Bahrain to settle after the fall of Nasr Al-Madhkur ofBushehr. These families included theHouse of Khalifa, Al-Ma'awdah, Al-Buainain, Al-Fadhil, Al-Kuwari, Al-Mannai, Al-Noaimi, Al-Rumaihi, Al-Sulaiti, Al-Sadah, Al-Thawadi and other families and tribes.[84]
The House of Khalifa moved from Qatar to Bahrain in 1799. Originally, their ancestors were expelled fromUmm Qasr in central Arabia by theOttomans due to their predatory habits of preying on caravans inBasra and trading ships inShatt al-Arab waterway until Turks expelled them to Kuwait in 1716, where they remained until 1766.[85]
Around the 1760s, theAl Jalahma and House of Khalifa, both belonging to the Utub Federation, migrated toZubarah in modern-day Qatar, leaving Al Sabah as the sole proprietors of Kuwait.[86]
In the early 19th century, Bahrain was invaded by both the Omanis and theAl Sauds. In 1802 it was governed by a 12-year-old child, when the Omani ruler Sayyid Sultan installed his son, Salim, as governor in theArad Fort.[87] In 1816, the British political resident in the Persian Gulf, William Bruce, received a letter from the Sheikh of Bahrain who was concerned about a rumour that Britain would support an attack on the island by the Imam of Muscat. He sailed to Bahrain to reassure the Sheikh that this was not the case and drew up an informal agreement assuring the Sheikh that Britain would remain a neutral party.[88]
This photograph shows the coronation of Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa as the Hakim of Bahrain in February 1933.
In 1820, the Al Khalifa tribe were recognised by the United Kingdom as the rulers ("Al-Hakim" in Arabic) of Bahrain after signing atreaty relationship.[89] However, ten years later they were forced to pay yearly tributes to Egypt despite seeking Persian and British protection.[90]
Map of Bahrain in 1825
In 1860, the Al Khalifas used the same tactic when the British tried to overpower Bahrain. Writing letters to the Persians andOttomans, Al Khalifas agreed to place Bahrain under the latter's protection in March due to offering better conditions. Eventually, theGovernment of British India overpowered Bahrain when the Persians refused to protect it. ColonelPelly signed a new treaty with Al Khalifas placing Bahrain under British rule and protection.[90]
Manama Harbour, c. 1870
Following theQatari–Bahraini War in 1868, British representatives signed another agreement with the Al Khalifas. It specified that the ruler could not dispose of any of his territories except to the United Kingdom and could not enter into relationships with any foreign government without British consent.[91][92] In return the British promised to protect Bahrain from all aggression by sea and to lend support in case of land attack.[92] More importantly the British promised to support the rule of the Al Khalifa in Bahrain, securing its unstable position as rulers of the country. Other agreements in 1880 and 1892 sealed the protectorate status of Bahrain to the British.[92]
Unrest amongst the people of Bahrain began when Britain officially established complete dominance over the territory in 1892. The first revolt and widespread uprising took place in March 1895 against Sheikh Issa bin Ali, then ruler of Bahrain.[93] Sheikh Issa was the first of the Al Khalifa to rule without Persian relations.Sir Arnold Wilson, Britain's representative in the Persian Gulf and author ofThe Persian Gulf, arrived in Bahrain from Muscat at this time.[93] The uprising developed further with some protesters killed by British forces.[93]
Before the development of the petroleum industry, the island was largely devoted topearl fisheries and, as late as the 19th century, was considered to be the finest in the world.[20] In 1903, German explorerHermann Burchardt visited Bahrain and took many photographs of historical sites, including the oldQaṣr es-Sheikh, photos now stored at theEthnological Museum of Berlin.[94] Before theFirst World War, there were about 400 vessels hunting pearls and an annual export of more than £30,000.[36]
In 1911, a group of Bahraini merchants demanded restrictions on the British influence in the country. The group's leaders were subsequently arrested and exiled to India. In 1923, the British introducedadministrative reforms and replaced Sheikh Issa bin Ali with his son. Some clerical opponents and families, such asAl Dosari, left or were exiled to Saudi Arabia.[95] Three years later the British placed the country under thede facto rule ofCharles Belgrave who operated as an adviser to the ruler until 1957.[96][97] Belgrave brought a number of reforms such as establishment of the country's first modern school in 1919 and the abolition ofslavery in 1937.[98] At the same time, the pearl diving industry developed at a rapid pace.
In 1927,Rezā Shāh, thenShah of Iran, demanded sovereignty over Bahrain in a letter to theLeague of Nations, a move that prompted Belgrave to undertake harsh measures including encouraging conflicts betweenShia and Sunni Muslims to bring down the uprisings and limit the Iranian influence.[99] Belgrave even went further by suggesting to rename thePersian Gulf to the "Arabian Gulf"; however, the proposal was refused by the British government.[96] Britain's interest in Bahrain's development was motivated by concerns over Saudi and Iranian ambitions in the region.
A photograph of the First Oil Well in Bahrain, with oil first being extracted in 1931
In the early 1930s, Bahrain Airport was developed.Imperial Airways flew there, including theHandley Page HP42 aircraft. Later in the same decade, the Bahrain Maritime Airport was established, for flying boats and seaplanes.[102]
Bahrainparticipated in theSecond World War on theAllied side, joining on 10 September 1939. On 19 October 1940, four ItalianSM.82s bombersbombed Bahrain alongsideDhahran oilfields in Saudi Arabia,[103] attacking Allied-operated oil refineries.[104] Although minimal damage was caused in both locations, the attack forced the Allies to upgrade Bahrain's defences, an action which further stretched Allied military resources.[104]
Overview of Manama, 1953
After World War II, increasing sentiments against British occupation spread throughout Arab countries and led to protests in Bahrain. The protests focused on the Jewish community.[105] In 1948, followingrising hostilities and looting,[106] most members of Bahrain's Jewish community abandoned their properties and fled toBombay, later settling in Israel (Pardes Hanna-Karkur) and the United Kingdom. As of 2008[update], 37 Jews remained in the country.[106] In the 1950s, theNational Union Committee, formed by reformists following sectarian clashes, demanded an elected popular assembly, removal of Belgrave and carried out a number of protests and general strikes. In 1965 a month-longuprising broke out after hundreds of workers at the Bahrain Petroleum Company were laid off.[107]
On 15 August 1971,[108][109] though theShah of Iran was claiming historical sovereignty over Bahrain, he accepteda referendum held by the United Nations and eventually Bahrain declared independence and signed a new treaty of friendship with Britain. Bahrain joined the United Nations and theArab League later in the year.[110] The oil boom of the 1970s benefited Bahrain greatly, although the subsequent downturn hurt the economy. The country had already begun diversification of its economy and benefited further from theLebanese Civil War in the 1970s and 1980s, when Bahrain replacedBeirut as the Middle East's financial hub after Lebanon's large banking sector was driven out of the country by the war.[111]
Apopular uprising occurred between 1994 and 2000 in which leftists, liberals and fundamentalists joined forces.[115] The event resulted in approximately forty deaths and ended after Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa became the Emir of Bahrain in 1999.[116] He instituted elections for parliament, gave women the right to vote, and released all political prisoners.[117] A referendum on 14–15 February 2001 massively supported theNational Action Charter.[118] As part of the adoption of the National Action Charter on 14 February 2002, Bahrain changed its formal name from the State (dawla) of Bahrain to the Kingdom of Bahrain.[119] At the same time, the title of the Head of State, Hamad bin Isa al-Khalifa, was changed from Emir to King.[120]
Inspired by the regionalArab Spring, Bahrain's Shia populationstarted large protests against its Sunni rulers in early 2011.[124][125] The government initially allowedprotests following apre-dawn raid on protesters camped inPearl Roundabout.[126] A month later it requested security assistance from Saudi Arabia and otherGulf Cooperation Council countries and declared a three-month state of emergency.[127] The government then launched a crackdown on the opposition that included conducting thousands of arrests andsystematic torture.[128][129][130] Almost daily clashes between protesters and security forces led todozens of deaths.[131] Protests, sometimes staged by opposition parties, were ongoing.[132][133][134] More than 80 civilians and 13 policemen have been killed as of March 2014[update].[135]According toPhysicians for Human Rights, 34 of these deaths were related to government usage oftear gas originally manufactured by America-basedFederal Laboratories.[136][137] The lack of coverage by Arab media in the Persian Gulf,[138] as compared to otherArab Spring uprisings, has sparked several controversies.
According toAmnesty International, "Ten years after Bahrain's popular uprising, systemic injustice has intensified and political repression targeting dissidents, human rights defenders, clerics and independent civil society have effectively shut any space for the peaceful exercise of the right to freedom of expression or peaceful activism".[139] Bahrain remains militarily and financially dependent on Saudi Arabia and the UAE,[140] though this is changing with the economic reforms being implemented by the government.[141]
Bahrain is a generally flat and aridarchipelago in the Persian Gulf. It consists of a low desert plain rising gently to a low central escarpment with the highest point the 134 m (440 ft)Mountain of Smoke(Jabal ad Dukhan).[142][143] Bahrain had a total area of 665 km2 (257 sq mi) but due toland reclamation, the area increased to 780 km2 (300 sq mi).[143]
Often described as an archipelago of 33 islands,[144] extensive land reclamation projects have changed this; by August 2008 the number of islands and island groups had increased to 84.[145] Bahrain does not share a land boundary with another country but does have a 161 km (100 mi) coastline. The country also claims a further 22 km (12 nmi) ofterritorial sea and a 44 km (24 nmi)contiguous zone. Bahrain's largest islands are Bahrain Island, theHawar Islands,Muharraq Island,Umm an Nasan, andSitra. Bahrain has mild winters and very hot, humid summers. The country's natural resources include large quantities of oil and natural gas as well as fish in the offshore waters. Arable land constitutes only 2.82%[10] of the total area.
About 92% of Bahrain is desert with periodic droughts and dust storms, the main natural hazards for Bahrainis.[146] In Bahrainforest cover is around 1% of the total land area, equivalent to 700 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 220 hectares (ha) in 1990. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership.[147][148]
Environmental issues facing Bahrain include desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land, coastal degradation (damage to coastlines,coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, distribution stations, and illegal land reclamation at places such asTubli Bay. The agricultural and domestic sectors' over-utilisation of the Dammam Aquifer, the principal aquifer in Bahrain, has led to itssalinisation by adjacent brackish and saline water bodies. A hydrochemical study identified the locations of the sources of aquifer salinisation and delineated their areas of influence. The investigation indicates that the aquifer water quality is significantly modified as groundwater flows from the northwestern parts of Bahrain, where the aquifer receives its water by lateral underflow from eastern Saudi Arabia to the southern and southeastern parts. Four types of salinisation of the aquifer are identified: brackish-water up-flow from the underlying brackish-water zones in north-central, western, and eastern regions; seawater intrusion in the eastern region; intrusion ofsabkha water in the southwestern region; and irrigation return flow in a local area in the western region. Four alternatives for the management of groundwater quality that are available to the water authorities in Bahrain are discussed and their priority areas are proposed, based on the type and extent of each salinisation source, in addition to groundwater use in that area.[149]
Bahrain is the eleventh most water-stressed country in the world.
TheZagros Mountains across the Persian Gulf in Iran cause low-level winds to be directed toward Bahrain. Dust storms from Iraq and Saudi Arabia transported by northwesterly winds, locally calledshamal wind, cause reduced visibility in the months of June and July.[150]
Summers are very hot. The seas around Bahrain are very shallow, heating up quickly in the summer to produce very highhumidity, especially at night. This is in stark contrast to other desert climates such as those ofBaghdad orPhoenix. Summer temperatures may reach up to 40 °C (104 °F) under the right conditions.[151] Rainfall in Bahrain is minimal and irregular. Precipitation mostly occurs in winter, with an average of 70.8 millimetres or 2.8 inches of rainfall recorded annually. The country experiencedwidespread flooding in April 2024 after heavy rainfall affected the Gulf region.
Due toclimate change Bahrain is experiencing more frequent extreme heat, drought, flooding anddust storms and the threat of sea level rise. These conditions threaten Bahrain's food and water security, and are expected to become more severe in the future.[152] Despite being a relatively low-emitting country overall, Bahrain was the second highestgreenhouse gas emitter per capita in 2023, at approximately 42 tonnes per person.[153] Most of Bahrain's emissions arise from burningfossil fuels in the energy sector.[154] The nation has committed tonet zero by 2060[154] and also aims to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 30% by 2035.[155]
More than 330 species of birds were recorded in the Bahrain archipelago, 26 species of which breed in the country. Millions of migratory birds pass through the Persian Gulf region in the winter and autumn months.[156] One globally endangered species,Chlamydotis undulata, is a regular migrant in the autumn.[156] The many islands and shallow seas of Bahrain are globally important for the breeding of theSocotra cormorant; up to 100,000 pairs of these birds were recorded over the Hawar Islands.[156] Bahrain's national bird is thebulbul while its national animal is theArabian oryx. And the national flower of Bahrain is the beloved Deena.
The Hawar Islands Protected Area provides valuable feeding and breeding grounds for a variety of migratory seabirds; it is an internationally recognised site forbird migration. The breeding colony ofSocotra cormorant on Hawar Islands is the largest in the world, and the dugongs foraging around the archipelago form the second-largest dugong aggregation after Australia.[157]
Bahrain has five designatedprotected areas, four of which are marine environments.[156] They are:
Al Areen Wildlife Park, which is a zoo and a breeding centre forendangered animals, is the only protected area on land and also the only protected area which is managed on a day-to-day basis.[156]
Bahrain has abicameral National Assembly (al-Majlis al-Watani) consisting of the Shura Council (Majlis Al-Shura) with 40 seats and the Council of Representatives (Majlis Al-Nuwab) with 40 seats. The forty members of the Shura are appointed by the king. In the Council of Representatives, 40 members are elected by absolute majority vote ingerrymandered single-member constituencies to serve four-year terms.[160] The appointed council "exercises ade facto veto" over the "rubber-stamp" elected, because draft acts must be approved so they may pass into law. After approval, the king may ratify and issue the act or return it within six months to the National Assembly where it may only pass into law if approved by two-thirds of both councils.[158]
In 1973, the country held its firstparliamentary elections; however, two years later, thelate emir dissolved the parliament and suspended theconstitution after parliament rejected theState Security Law.[107] The period between 2002 and 2010 saw three parliamentary elections. Thefirst, held in 2002 was boycotted by the opposition,Al Wefaq, which won a majority in thesecond in 2006 andthird in 2010.[161]A 2011 by-election was held to replace 18 members of Al Wefaq who resigned in protest against government crackdown.[162][163]
The opening up of politics saw big gains for bothShīa andSunnīfundamentalists in elections, which gave them a parliamentary platform to pursue their policies.[168] It gave a new prominence to clerics within the political system, with the most senior Shia religious leader, SheikhIsa Qassim, playing a vital role.[169] This was especially evident when in 2005 the government called off the Shia branch of the "Family law" after over 100,000 Shia took to the streets. Muslim fundamentalists opposed the law because "neither elected MPs nor the government has the authority to change the law because these institutions could misinterpret the word of God". The law was supported by women activists who said they were "suffering in silence". They managed to organise a rally attended by 500 participants.[170][171][172]Ghada Jamsheer, a leading woman activist[173] said the government was using the law as a "bargaining tool with opposition Islamic groups".[174]
Analysts of democratisation in the Middle East cite the fundamentalist' references to respect human rights in their justification for these programmes as evidence that these groups can serve as a progressive force in the region.[175] Some fundamentalist parties have been particularly critical of the government's readiness to sign international treaties such as theUnited Nations' International Convention on Civil and Political Rights. At a parliamentary session in June 2006 to discuss ratification of the convention, SheikhAdel Mouwda, the former leader of asalafist party,Asalah, explained the party's objections: "The convention has been tailored by our enemies, God kill them all, to serve their needs and protect their interests rather than ours. This why we have eyes from the American Embassy watching us during our sessions, to ensure things are swinging their way".[176]
The kingdom has a small but professional and well-equipped military called the Bahrain Defence Force (BDF), numbering around 8,200 personnel, including 6,000 in theRoyal Bahraini Army, 700 in theRoyal Bahraini Naval Force, and 1,500 in the Royal Bahraini Air Force. The BDF command structure also includes theBahrain Royal Guard, which is the size of one battalion and has its own armored vehicles and artillery. TheBahrain National Guard is separate from the BDF, though it is tasked with assisting it in defense from external threats, and it has about 2,000 personnel.[177][178] The supreme commander of the Bahraini military is King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa and the deputy supreme commander is the Crown Prince,Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa.[179][180] The Commander-in-Chief of the BDF has been Field MarshalKhalifa bin Ahmed Al Khalifa since 2008.[181]
The BDF is primarily equipped with American made equipment, such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon,F-5 Freedom Fighter,UH-60 Blackhawk,M60A3 tanks, and the ex-USS Jack Williams, anOliver Hazard Perry class frigate renamed theRBNS Sabha.[178][182][183] On 7 August 2020, it was announced in a ceremony held at theHMNB Portsmouth Naval Base inBritain, thatHMS Clyde had been transferred to the Royal Bahrain Naval Force, with the ship renamed as RBNSAl-Zubara.[184][185] On 18 January 2024 the Bahraini Navy received a secondOliver Hazard Perry-class frigate, the formerUSS Robert G. Bradley, which was renamed RBNSKhalid bin Ali.[186][187] Bahrain was the first country in the Gulf to operate the F-16. Sometime in 2024 the Royal Bahraini Air Force expects to receive 16 aircraft of the modernised F-16 Block 70 variant,[188] in addition to its current 20 F-16C/D and 12 F-5E/F fighters. The Royal Bahraini Army has 180 M60A3 main battle tanks, with 100 in active service and 80 in storage.[178]
The Government of Bahrain hasclose relations with America, having signed a cooperative agreement with theAmerican military, and has provided America a base inJuffair since the early 1990s, although an American naval presence existed since 1948.[189] This is the home of the headquarters for Commander,American Naval Forces Central Command (COMUSNAVCENT) /American Fifth Fleet (COMFIFTHFLT),[190] and around 6,000 American military personnel.[191]
King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa meets American presidentDonald Trump in May 2017
Bahrain has establishedbilateral relations with 190 countries worldwide.[195] As of 2012[update], Bahrain maintains a network of 25embassies, threeconsulates and four permanent missions to the Arab League, United Nations andEuropean Union respectively.[196] Bahrain also hosts 36 embassies. America designated Bahrain amajor non-NATO ally in 2001.[197] Bahrain plays a modest, moderating role in regional politics and adheres to the views of the Arab League on Middle East peace andPalestinian rights by supporting thetwo state solution.[198] Bahrain is also one of the founding members of theGulf Cooperation Council.[199] Relations with Iran tend to be tense as a result of afailed coup in 1981 which Bahrain blames Iran for and occasional claims of Iranian sovereignty over Bahrain byultra-conservative elements in the Iranian public.[200][201] In 2016, following the storming of the Saudi embassy in Tehran, both Saudi Arabia and Bahrain cut diplomatic relations with Iran. Bahrain and Israel established bilateral relations in 2020 under theBahrain–Israel normalisation agreement.[202]
Bahrain is the 81st most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.[203]
The period between 1975 and 1999, known as the "State Security Law Era", saw wide range of human rights violations including arbitrary arrests, detention without trial, torture and forced exile.[204][205] After Emir (now King) Hamad Al Khalifa succeeded his father Isa Al Khalifa in 1999, he introduced wide reforms and human rights improved significantly.[206] These moves were described by Amnesty International as representing a "historic period of human rights".[117]
Consensual male and female homosexual relations between adults over the age of 21 are legal in Bahrain, which is the only Muslim Gulf country where it has been legal since 1976.[207]
Protesters at the Pearl Roundabout just before it was demolished
Human rights conditions started to decline by 2007 whentorture began to be employed again.[208] In 2011, Human Rights Watch described the country's human rights situation as "dismal".[209] Due to this, Bahrain lost some of the highInternational rankings it had gained before.[210][211][212][213][214]
In 2011, Bahrain was criticised for its crackdown on theArab spring uprising. In September, a government-appointedcommission confirmedreports of grave human rights violations, includingsystematic torture. The government promised to introduce reforms and avoid repeating the "painful events".[215] However, reports by human rights organisations Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch issued in April 2012 said the same violations were still happening.[216][217]
Amnesty International's 2015 report on the country points to the continued suppression of dissent, restricted freedom of expression, unjust imprisonment, and frequent torture and other ill-treatment of its citizens.[218] As of October 2014[update], Bahrain is ruled by an "authoritarian regime" and is rated as "Not Free" by America-based non-governmentalFreedom House.[219] Freedom House continues to label Bahrain as "not free" in its 2021 report.[220] On 7 July 2016, theEuropean Parliament adopted, with a large majority, a resolution condemning human rights abuses performed by Bahraini authorities, and strongly called for an end to the ongoing repression against the country's human rights defenders, political opposition and civil society.[221]
Several people held a sit-in in solidarity with human rights activistNabeel Rajab
In August 2017, American Secretary of StateRex Tillerson spoke against the discrimination of Shias in Bahrain, saying, "Members of the Shia community there continue to report ongoing discrimination in government employment, education, and the justice system," and that "Bahrain must stop discriminating against the Shia communities." He also stated that "In Bahrain, the government continue to question, detain and arrest Shia clerics, community members and opposition politicians."[222][223] However, in September 2017, the American State Department has approved arms sales packages worth more than $3.8 billion to Bahrain including F-16 jets, upgrades, missiles and patrol boats.[224][225] In its latest report Amnesty International accused both the American and British governments of turning a blind eye to horrific abuses of human rights by the ruling Bahraini regime.[226] On 31 January 2018, Amnesty International reported that the Bahraini government expelled four of its citizens after having revoked their nationality in 2012, turning them into stateless people.[227] On 21 February 2018, human rights activistNabeel Rajab was sentenced to a further five years in jail for tweets and documentation of human rights violations.[228] On behalf of the ruling family, Bahraini police have received training on how to deal with public protests from the British government.[229][unreliable source?][230]
On 11 July 2020, a government watchdog in Bahrain claimed that the confessions of two pro-democracy campaigners were extracted by torture. Mohammed Ramadhan and Husain Moosa from Bahrain were leading figures in the pro-democracy protests of 2011. They were arrested in 2014 and accused of killing a police officer.[231] On 13 July 2020, the highest Court in Bahrain overruled the previous judgment and upheld the death sentences for both men. The judgment was criticised by Sayed Ahmed Alwadaei, the director of advocacy at theBahrain Institute for Rights and Democracy (BIRD), who stated: "Today's verdict is yet another dark stain in the struggle for human rights in Bahrain."[232]
The 761-pageWorld Report 2021 published by theHuman Rights Watch in January 2021 revealed that the situation of human rights did not improve in Bahrain in 2020. It highlighted that the repression against social media activities escalated, death sentences were upheld by the courts against opposition activists after unfair trials, and the critics continued to be prosecuted for peaceful expression. The country also increased the use of the death penalty, while it denied medical treatment to some of the prominent opposition figures being kept in detention. The Human Rights Watch said that Bahrain uses several repressive tools to silence and punish every person who dares to criticise the government.[233]
In March 2021, Human Rights Watch (HRW) and the London-based Bahrain Institute for Rights and Democracy claimed that 13 children aged between 11 and 17 were beaten and threatened with rape and electric shocks after being detained in protest-related cases.[234]
Women in Bahrain acquired voting rights and the right to stand in national elections in the 2002 election.[235] However, no women were elected to office in that year's polls.[236] In response to the failure of women candidates, six were appointed to the Shura Council, which also includes representatives of the kingdom's indigenous Jewish and Christian communities.[237]Nada Haffadh became the country's first female cabinet minister on her appointment as Minister of Health in 2004. The quasi-governmental women's group, theSupreme Council for Women, trained female candidates to take part in the 2006 general election. When Bahrain was elected to head the United Nations General Assembly in 2006 it appointed lawyer and women's rights activistHaya bint Rashid Al Khalifa President of the United Nations General Assembly, only the third woman in history to head the world body.[238] Female activist Ghada Jamsheer said "The government used women's rights as a decorative tool on the international level." She referred to the reforms as "artificial and marginal" and accused the government of "hinder[ing] non-governmental women societies".[174]
In 2006,Lateefa Al Gaood became the first female MP after winning by default.[239] The number rose to four after the 2011 by-elections.[240] In 2008,Houda Nonoo was appointed ambassador to America making her the first Jewish ambassador of any Arab country.[241] In 2011,Alice Samaan, a Christian woman, was appointed ambassador to Britain.[242]
The predominant forms of media in Bahrain consists of weekly and daily newspapers, television, and radio.
Newspapers are widely available in multiple languages such as Arabic, English, Malayalam, etc. to support the varied population.Akhbar Al Khaleej (أخبار الخليج) andAl Ayam (الأيام) are examples of major Arabic newspapers published daily.Gulf Daily News andDaily Tribune publish daily newspapers in English.Gulf Madhyamam is a newspaper published in Malayalam.
The country's television network operates five networks, all of which are by theInformation Affairs Authority. Radio, much like the television network, is mostly state-run and usually in Arabic.Radio Bahrain is a long-running English language radio station, andRadio Mirchi 104.2 is a radio station serving the large expatriate population from the Indian subcontinent living in the country.
By June 2012, Bahrain had 961,000 internet users.[243] The platform "provides a welcome free space for journalists, although one that is increasingly monitored", according to Reporters Without Borders. Rigorous filtering targets political, human rights, religious material and content deemed obscene. Bloggers and othernetizens were among those detained during protests in 2011.[244]
Bahraini journalists risk prosecution for offences that include "undermining" the government and religion.Self-censorship is widespread. Journalists were targeted by officials during anti-government protests in 2011. Three editors from the now-banned opposition dailyAl-Wasat were sacked and later fined for publishing "false" news. Several foreign correspondents were expelled.[244] An independent commission, set up to look into the unrest, found that state media coverage was at times inflammatory. It said opposition groups suffered from lack of access to mainstream media and recommended that the government "consider relaxing censorship". Assessments by Reporters Without Borders have consistently found Bahrain to be one of the most world's most restrictive regimes.[245]
In 2008, Bahrain was named the world's fastest-growing financial centre by the City of London'sGlobal Financial Centres Index.[249][250] Bahrain's banking and financial services sector, particularlyMuslim banking, have benefited from the regional boom driven by demand for oil.[251] Petroleum production and processing is Bahrain's most exported product, accounting for 60% of export receipts, 70% of government revenues, and 11% ofGDP.[10]Aluminium production is the second-most exported product, followed by finance and construction materials.[10]
Manama skyline as viewed fromJuffairA view of the Grand Avenue section of the AvenuesThe view from outside one of the entrance gates at the Avenues
Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing price of oil since 1985, for example during and following thePersian Gulf crisis of 1990–91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to a number of multinational firms and construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude oil, which accounted for 51% of the country's imports in 2007.[146] In October 2008, the Bahraini government introduced a long-term economic vision for Bahrain known as 'Vision 2030' which aims to transform Bahrain into a diversified and sustainable economy.
In recent years, the government has undertaken several economic reforms in order to improve its financial dependency and also to boost its image as an island tourist destination that is compact, has short travel times and provides a much more authentic Arab experience than the regional economic and tourism powerhouse of Dubai.[252] The Avenues is one such example of the recent developments. It is a waterfront facing shopping mall that was opened in October 2019.[253] Bahrain depends heavily on food imports to feed its growing population—it imports large amounts of meat and 75% of its fruit.[254][255]
Since only 2.9% of the country's land isarable,agriculture contributes to 0.5% of Bahrain's GDP.[255] In 2004, Bahrain signed theBahrain–US Free Trade Agreement, which will reduce certain trade barriers between the two nations.[256] In 2011, due to the combination of theGreat Recession and the2011 Bahraini uprising, its GDP growth rate decreased to 1.3%, which was the lowest growth rate since 1994.[257] The country's public debt in 2020 is $44.5 billion, or 130% of GDP. It is expected to rise to 155 per cent of GDP in 2026, according to IMF estimates. Themilitary expenditure is the main reason for this increase in debt.[258]
Access tobiocapacity in Bahrain is much lower than the world average. In 2016, Bahrain had 0.52 global hectares[259] of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.[260]
In 2016, Bahrain used 8.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person – theirecological footprint of consumption. This means they use 16.5 times as much biocapacity as Bahrain contains. As a result, Bahrain is running a biocapacity deficit.[259]
Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems. In 2008, the jobless figure was at 4%,[261] with women overrepresented at 85% of the total.[262] In 2007 Bahrain became the first Arab country to instituteunemployment benefits as part of a series of labour reforms instigated under Minister of Labour,Majeed Al Alawi.[263]
As of Q4 2022, total employment in Bahrain[264] stood at 746,145 workers. This included both Bahraini and Non-Bahraini workers. These employment levels represented a full recovery of employment since the downturn caused by the COVID pandemic.[265]
The cities ofMuharraq (foreground) and Manama (background)Manama seen fromMuharraq
As a tourist destination, Bahrain received over eleven million visitors in 2019.[266] Most of these are from the surrounding Arab states, although an increasing number hail from outside the region due to growing awareness of the kingdom's heritage and partly due to its higher profile as a result of theBahrain Grand Prix.
The kingdom combines modern Arab culture and the archaeological legacy of five thousand years of civilisation. The island is home to forts includingQalat Al Bahrain which has been listed byUNESCO as aWorld Heritage Site. TheBahrain National Museum has artefacts from the country's history dating back to the island's first human inhabitants some 9000 years ago and theBeit Al Quran (Arabic: بيت القرآن, meaning: the House of Qur'an) is a museum that holds Muslim artefacts of theQur'an. Some of the popular historical tourist attractions in the kingdom are theAl Khamis Mosque, which is one of the oldest mosques in the region, theArad fort in Muharraq,Barbar temple, which is an ancient temple from the Dilmunite period of Bahrain, as well as theA'ali Burial Mounds and theSaar temple.[267] TheTree of Life, a 400-year-old tree that grows in theSakhir desert with no nearby water, is also a popular tourist attraction.[268]
Bird watching (primarily in theHawar Islands),scuba diving, andhorse riding are popular tourist activities in Bahrain. Many tourists from nearby Saudi Arabia and across the region visit Manama primarily for theshopping malls in the capital Manama, such as theBahrain City Centre andSeef Mall in theSeef district of Manama. The Manama Souq andGold Souq in the old district of Manama are also popular with tourists.[269]
In January 2019 the state-run Bahrain News Agency announced the summer 2019 opening of an underwater theme park covering about 100,000 square metres with a sunkenBoeing 747 as the site's centrepiece. The project is a partnership between the Supreme Council for Environment, Bahrain Tourism and Exhibitions Authority (BTEA), and private investors. Bahrain hopes scuba divers from around the world will visit the underwater park, which will also include artificialcoral reefs, a copy of a Bahraini pearl merchant's house, and sculptures.[270] The park is intended to become the world's largest eco-friendly underwater theme park.[271]
Since 2005, Bahrain hosts an annual festival in March, titledSpring of Culture, which features internationally renowned musicians and artists performing in concerts.[272] Manama was named theArab Capital of Culture for 2012 andCapital of Arab Tourism for 2013 by the Arab League and Asian Tourism for 2014 with the Gulf Capital of Tourism for 2016 by The Gulf Cooperation Council. The 2012 festival featured concerts starringAndrea Bocelli,Julio Iglesias and other musicians.[273]
The Kingdom of Bahrain introduced the Value Added Tax with effect from 1 January 2019.[274] This is a multipoint tax on the sale of goods and services in Kingdom of Bahrain. This has been managed by the government through the national bureau of revenue. The ultimate burden of this tax is passed on the consumer. To start with the maximum rate of VAT was 5% which is increased to 10% with effect from 1 January 2022.[275] The government of Bahrain is assuring compliance through high penalties on defaults and tighter audits. This first of its kind VAT has invited qualified chartered accounting firms mainly from India to advise on VAT matters. Firms like KPMG, KeyPoint, Assure Consulting and APMH have set up offices looking at the need for consulting in this domain of VAT.
The new terminal of the Bahrain International Airport
Bahrain has one maininternational airport, theBahrain International Airport (BAH) which is located on the island ofMuharraq, in the north-east. The airport handled almost 100,000 flights and more than 9.5 million passengers in 2019.[276] On 28 January 2021, Bahrain opened its new airport terminal as part of its economic vision 2030.[277] The new airport terminal is capable of handling 14 million passengers and is a big boost to the country's aviation sector.[277] Bahrain's national carrier,Gulf Air operates and bases itself in the BIA.
The King Fahd Causeway as seen from space
Bahrain has a well-developedroad network, particularly in Manama. The discovery of oil in the early 1930s accelerated the creation of multiple roads andhighways in Bahrain, connecting several isolated villages, such asBudaiya, to Manama.[278]
To the east, a bridge connected Manama toMuharraq since 1929, a new causeway was built in 1941 which replaced the old wooden bridge.[278] Currently there are three modern bridges connecting the two locations.[279] Transits between the two islands peaked after the construction of the Bahrain International Airport in 1932.[278]Ring roads and highways were later built to connect Manama to the villages of theNorthern Governorate and towards towns in central and southern Bahrain.
The four main islands and all the towns and villages are linked by well-constructed roads. There were 3,164 km (1,966 mi) of roadways in 2002, of which 2,433 km (1,512 mi) were paved. Acauseway stretching over 2.8 km (2 mi), connect Manama withMuharraq Island, and another bridge joinsSitra to the main island. The King Fahd Causeway, measuring 24 km (15 mi), links Bahrain with the Saudi Arabian mainland via the island ofUmm an-Nasan. It was completed in December 1986, and financed by Saudi Arabia. In 2008, there were 17,743,495 passengers transiting through the causeway.[280] A second causeway, which will have both road and rail connection, between Bahrain and Saudi Arabia called 'King Hamad Causeway' is currently being discussed and is in the planning phase.[281]
Bahrain's port ofMina Salman is the mainseaport of the country and consists of 15berths.[282] In 2001, Bahrain had a merchant fleet of eight ships of 1,000GT or over, totalling 270,784 GT.[283] Private vehicles and taxis are the primary means of transportation in the city.[284] Anationwide metro system is currently under construction and is due to be operational by 2025.
Thetelecommunications sector in Bahrain officially started in 1981 with the establishment of Bahrain's first telecommunications company,Batelco and until 2004, itmonopolised the sector. In 1981, there were more than 45,000 telephones in use in the country. By 1999, Batelco had more than 100,000 mobile contracts.[285] In 2002, under pressure from international bodies, Bahrain implemented its telecommunications law which included the establishment of an independentTelecommunications Regulatory Authority (TRA).[285] In 2004,Zain (a rebranded version ofMTC Vodafone) started operations in Bahrain and in 2010 VIVA (owned bySTC Group) became the third company to provide mobile services.[286]
Bahrain has been connected to the internet since 1995 with the country'sdomain suffix being '.bh'. The country's connectivity score (a statistic which measures both Internet access and fixed and mobile telephone lines) is 210.4 per cent per person, while the regional average inArab States of the Persian Gulf is 135.37 per cent.[287] The number of Bahrainiinternet users has risen from 40,000 in 2000[288] to 250,000 in 2008,[289] or from 5.95 to 33 per cent of the population. As of August 2013[update], the TRA has licensed 22Internet Service Providers.[290]
TheBahraini Economic Vision 2030 published in 2008 does not indicate how the stated goal of shifting from an economy built on oil wealth to a productive, globally competitive economy will be attained. Bahrain has already diversified its exports to some extent, out of necessity. It has the smallest hydrocarbon reserves of any Persian Gulf state, producing 48,000 barrels per day from its one onshore field.[291] The bulk of the country's revenue comes from its share in the offshore field administered by Saudi Arabia. The gas reserve in Bahrain is expected to last for less than 27 years, leaving the country with few sources of capital to pursue the development of new industries. Investment in research and development remained very low in 2013.[292]
Apart from the Ministry of Education and the Higher Education Council, the two main hives of activity in science, technology, and innovation are the University of Bahrain (established in 1986) and the Bahrain Centre for Strategic, International, and Energy Studies. The latter was founded in 2009 to undertake research with a focus on strategic security and energy issues to encourage new thinking and influence policymaking.[292]
Bahrain hopes to build a science culture within the kingdom and to encourage technological innovation, among other goals. In 2013, the Bahrain Science Centre was launched as an interactive educational facility targeting 6- to 18-year-olds. The topics covered by current exhibitions include junior engineering, human health, the five senses, Earth sciences and biodiversity.[292]
In April 2014, Bahrain launched its National Space Science Agency. The agency has been working to ratify international space-related agreements such as theOuter Space Treaty, the Rescue Agreement, theSpace Liability Convention, the Registration Convention and the Moon Agreement. The agency plans to establish infrastructure for the observation of both outer space and the Earth.[292]
In November 2008, an agreement was signed to establish a Regional Centre for Information and Communication Technology in Manama under the auspices of UNESCO. The aim is to establish a knowledge hub for the six-member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council. In March 2012, the centre hosted two high-level workshops on ICTs and education. In 2013, Bahrain topped the Arab world for internet penetration (90% of the population), trailed by the United Arab Emirates (86%) and Qatar (85%). Just half of Bahrainis and Qataris (53%) and two-thirds of those in the United Arab Emirates (64%) had access in 2009.[292]
In 2012, the government devoted 2.6% of GDP to education, one of the lowest ratios in the Arab world. This ratio was on a par with investment in education in Lebanon and higher only than that in Qatar (2.4% in 2008) and Sudan (2.2% in 2009).[292] Bahrain was ranked 72nd in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024,[293] but jumped to the 62nd rank according to GII 2025.[294]Bahrain invests little in research and development. In 2009 and 2013, this investment reportedly amounted to 0.04% of GDP, although the data were incomplete, covering only the higher education sector. The lack of comprehensive data on research and development poses a challenge for policymakers, as data inform evidence-based policymaking.[292]
The available data for researchers in 2013 cover only the higher education sector. Here, the number of researchers is equivalent to 50 per million inhabitants, compared to a global average for all employment sectors of 1,083 per million.[292]
TheUniversity of Bahrain had over 20,000 students in 2014, 65% of whom are women, and around 900 faculty members, 40% of whom are women. From 1986 to 2014, university staff published 5,500 papers and books. The university spent about US$11 million per year on research in 2014, which was conducted by a contingent of 172 men and 128 women. Women thus made up 43% of researchers at theUniversity of Bahrain in 2014.[292]
Bahrain was one of 11 Arab states which counted a majority of female university graduates in science and engineering in 2014. Women accounted for 66% of graduates in natural sciences, 28% of those in engineering and 77% of those in health and welfare. It is harder to judge the contribution of women to research, as the data for 2013 only cover the higher education sector.[292]
In 2014, Bahraini scientists published 155 articles in internationally catalogued journals, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). This corresponds to 15 articles per million inhabitants, compared to a global average of 176 per million inhabitants in 2013. Scientific output has risen slowly from 93 articles in 2005 and remains modest. By 2014, only Mauritania and Palestine had a smaller output in this database among Arab states.[295][292]
Between 2008 and 2014, Bahraini scientists collaborated most with their peers from Saudi Arabia (137 articles), followed by Egypt (101), the Britain (93), the America (89) and Tunisia (75).[292]
Bahrainis observing public prayers in ManamaManama Souq on Bahrain National Day
In 2010, Bahrain's population grew to 1.2 million, of which 568,399 were Bahraini and 666,172 were non-nationals.[296] It had risen from 1.05 million (517,368 non-nationals) in 2007, the year when Bahrain's population crossed the one million mark.[297] Though a majority of the population is Middle Eastern, a sizeable number of people from South Asia live in the country. In 2008, approximately 290,000Indian nationals lived in Bahrain, making them the single largest expatriate community in the country, the majority of which hail from the south Indian state ofKerala.[298][299] Bahrain is the fourthmost densely populated sovereign state in the world with a population density of 1,646 people per km2 in 2010.[296] The only sovereign states with larger population densities arecity states. Much of this population is concentrated in the north of the country with theSouthern Governorate being the least densely populated part.[296] The north of the country is so urbanised that it is considered by some to be one largemetropolitan area.[300]
Bahraini people are ethnically diverse. Shia Bahrainis are divided into two main ethnic groups:Baharna andAjam. The Shia Bahrainis areBaharna (Arab), and theAjam arePersian Shias. Shia Persians form large communities in Manama and Muharraq. A small minority of Shia Bahrainis are ethnic Hasawis fromAl-Hasa.
Sunni Bahrainis are mainly divided into two main ethnic groups: Arabs (al Arab) andHuwala. Sunni Arabs are the most influential ethnic group in Bahrain. They hold most government positions and theBahraini monarchy are Sunni Arabs. Sunni Arabs have traditionally lived in areas such as Zallaq, Muharraq,West Riffa and Hawar islands. The Huwala are descendants of Sunni Iranians; some of them are Sunni Persians,[301][302] while others Sunni Arabs.[303][304] There are also Sunnis ofBaloch origin. Most African Bahrainis come fromEast Africa and have traditionally lived in Muharraq Island and Riffa.[305]
The state religion of Bahrain isIslam and most Bahrainis are Muslim. The majority of Bahraini Muslims areSunni Muslims with a recent estimate giving them a 51% majority andShia Muslims with a 49% minority.[306] It was previously one of the three countries in theMiddle East in which Shia were the majority, the other two nations being Iraq and Iran, though the rise of Sunni migrants made Sunnis the majority.[307] Unofficial sources estimate sectarian identification to be approximately 55%Sunni and 45%Shia.[308][309] Public surveys are rare in Bahrain, but theUS department of state's report on religious freedom in Bahrain estimated that Shias constituted approximately 55% of Bahrain's citizen population in 2018.[310] The royal family and most Bahrani elites are Sunni.[311] The country's two Muslim communities are united on some issues, but disagree sharply on others.[311] Shia have often complained of being politically and economically discriminated against in Bahrain; as a result, most of the protestors in theBahraini uprising of 2011 were Shia.[312][313][314]
National Evangelical Church, ManamaThe Shrinathji temple in Manama
Christians in Bahrain make up about 14.5% of the population.[296] There is a nativeChristian community in Bahrain. Non-Muslim Bahraini residents numbered 367,683 per the 2010 census, most of whom are Christians.[315] Expatriate Christians make up the majority of Christians in Bahrain, while native Christian Bahrainis (who hold Bahraini citizenship) make up a smaller community. Native Christians who hold Bahraini citizenship number approximately 1,000 persons.[315]Alees Samaan, a former Bahraini ambassador to Britain is a native Christian. Bahrain also has a nativeJewish community numbering thirty-seven Bahraini citizens.[316] Various sources cite Bahrain's native Jewish community as being from 36 to 50 people.[317] According to Bahraini writerNancy Khedouri, the Jewish community of Bahrain is one of the youngest in the world, having its origins in the migration of a few families to the island from then-Iraq and then-Iran in the late 1880s.[318]Houda Nonoo, former ambassador to America, is Jewish. There is also a Hindu community on the island. They constitute the third largest religious group. TheShrinathji temple located in old Manama is the oldest Hindu temple in theGCC and the Arab world. It is over 200 years old and was built by the Thattai Hindu community in 1817.[319]
According to the 2001 census, 81.2% of Bahrain's population was Muslim, 10% were Christian, and 9.8% practisedHinduism orother religions.[10] The 2010 census records that the Muslim proportion had fallen to 70.2% (the 2010 census did not differentiate between the non-Muslim religions).[296]
Arabic is the official language of Bahrain, though English is widely used.[320]Bahrani Arabic is the most widely spoken dialect of the Arabic language and is different from standard Arabic, like all Arabic dialects. Arabic plays an important role in political life, as, according toarticle 57 (c) of Bahrain's constitution, an MP must be fluent in Arabic to stand for parliament.[321] In addition,Balochi is the second largest and widely spoken language in Bahrain.[citation needed] The Baloch are fluent in Arabic and Balochi. Among the Bahraini and non-Bahraini population, many people speakPersian, the official language of Iran, orUrdu, an official language in Pakistan and a regional language in India.[320]Nepali is also widely spoken in theNepalese workers and Gurkha Soldiers community.Malayalam,Tamil,Telugu,Bangla andHindi are spoken among significant Indian communities.[320] All commercial institutions and road signs arebilingual, displaying both English and Arabic.[322]
Bahrain boasts a diverse education system that includes a variety of private schools offering international curricula. Among these are British, American, and other international schools, catering to a wide range of educational needs.
Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 14.[323] Education is free for Bahraini citizens ingovernment schools, with the BahrainiMinistry of Education providing free textbooks.Coeducation is not used in government schools, with boys and girls segregated into separate schools.[324]
At the beginning of the 20th century, Qur'anic schools (Kuttab) were the only form of education in Bahrain.[325] They were traditional schools aimed at teaching children and youth the reading of theQur'an. AfterWorld War I, Bahrain became open to western influences, and a demand for modern educational institutions appeared. 1919 marked the beginning of modern government school system in Bahrain when the Al-Hidaya Al-Khalifia School for boys opened inMuharraq.[325] In 1926, the Education Committee opened the second government school for boys in Manama, and in 1928 the first government school for girls was opened in Muharraq.[325] As of 2011[update], there are a total of 126,981 students studying in government schools.[326]
In 2004, KingHamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa introduced the "King Hamad Schools of Future" project that uses Information Communication Technology to supportK–12 education in Bahrain.[327] The project's objective is to connect all schools within the kingdom with the Internet.[328] In addition to British intermediate schools, the island is served by theBahrain School (BS). The BS is anAmerican Department of Defense school that provides a K–12 curriculum includingInternational Baccalaureate offerings. There are also international schools that offer either theIB Diploma Programme or Britain'sA-Levels.
Bahrain has auniversal health care system, dating back to 1960.[331] Government-provided health care is free to Bahraini citizens and heavily subsidised for non-Bahrainis. Healthcare expenditure accounted for 4.5% of Bahrain's GDP, according to theWorld Health Organisation. Bahraini physicians and nurses form a majority of the country's workforce in the health sector, unlike neighbouring Gulf states.[332] The firsthospital in Bahrain was theAmerican Mission Hospital, which opened in 1893 as a dispensary.[333] The first public hospital, and alsotertiary hospital, to open in Bahrain was theSalmaniya Medical Complex, in theSalmaniya district of Manama, in 1957.[334] Private hospitals are also present throughout the country, such as theInternational Hospital of Bahrain.
Thelife expectancy in Bahrain is 73 for males and 76 for females. Compared to many countries in the region, the prevalence ofAIDS andHIV is relatively low.[335]Malaria andtuberculosis (TB) do not constitute major problems in Bahrain as neither disease is indigenous to the country. As a result, cases of malaria and TB have declined in recent decades with cases of contractions amongst Bahraini nationals becoming rare.[335] The Ministry of Health sponsors regular vaccination campaigns against TB and other diseases such ashepatitis B.[335][336]
Currently, Bahrain has anobesity epidemic as 28.9% of all males and 38.2% of all females are classified as obese.[337] Bahrain also has one of the highest prevalence ofdiabetes in the world (5th place). More than 15% of the Bahraini population are affected by the disease, and they account for 5% of deaths in the country.[338]Cardiovascular diseases account for 32% of all deaths in Bahrain, being the number one cause of death in the country (the second beingcancer).[339]Sickle-cell anaemia andthalassaemia are prevalent in the country, with a study concluding that 18% of Bahrainis are carriers of sickle-cell anaemia while 24% are carriers of thalassaemia.[340]
Islam is the main religion, and Bahrainis are known for their tolerance towards the practice of other faiths.[341] Intermarriages between Bahrainis and expatriates are not uncommon—there are many Filipino Bahrainis like Filipino child actressMona Marbella Al-Alawi.[342]
Rules regarding female attire are generally relaxed compared to regional neighbours; the traditional attire of women usually include thehijab or theabaya.[143] Although the traditional male attire is thethobe, which also includes traditional headdresses such as thekeffiyeh,ghutra andagal, Western clothing is common in the country.[143]
Although Bahrain legalisedhomosexuality in 1976, many homosexuals have since been arrested, often for violating broadly written laws against public immorality and public indecency.[343][344][345]
An artisan making pottery using the traditional mud and water mixture on a revolving wheel.
The modern art movement in the country officially emerged in the 1950s, culminating in the establishment of an art society.Expressionism andsurrealism, as well ascalligraphic art are the popular forms of art in the country.Abstract expressionism has gained popularity in recent decades.[346]Pottery-making andtextile-weaving are also popular products that were widely made in Bahraini villages.[346] Arabic calligraphy grew in popularity as theBahraini government was an active patron inMuslim art, culminating in the establishment of a Muslim museum,Beit Al Quran.[346] TheBahrain National Museum houses a permanentcontemporary art exhibition.[347] The annual Spring of Culture[348] festival run by the Bahrain Authority for Culture and Antiquities[349] has become a popular event promoting performance arts in the kingdom. Thearchitecture of Bahrain is similar to that of its neighbours in the Persian Gulf. Thewind tower, which generates natural ventilation in a house, is a common sight on old buildings, particularly in the old districts of Manama andMuharraq.[350]
Literature retains a strong tradition in the country; most traditional writers and poets write in theclassical Arabic style. In recent years, the number of younger poets influenced bywestern literature are rising, most writing infree verse and often including political or personal content.[351]Ali Al Shargawi, a decorated longtime poet, was described in 2011 byAl Shorfa as the literary icon of Bahrain.[352]
The music style in Bahrain is similar to that of its neighbours. TheKhaliji style of music, which isfolk music, is popular in the country. Thesawt style of music, which involves a complex form of urban music, performed by anOud (plucked lute), aviolin andmirwas (a drum), is also popular in Bahrain.[355]Ali Bahar was one of the most famous singers in Bahrain. He performed his music with his BandAl-Ekhwa (The Brothers). Bahrain was also the site of the firstrecording studio amongst the Persian Gulf states.[355]
With regards to cultural and tourism activities, the Ministry of Culture[356] organises a number of annual festivals. such as the Spring of Culture in March and April, theBahrain Summer Festival and Ta'a Al-Shabab from August to September, and the Bahrain International Music Festival in October which features musical and theatrical performances, lectures, and much more.
As for cultural sites, residents, visitors, and tourists can re-live history through Bahrain's many historical sites.
Bahrain is the first nation other than America to hostInternational Mixed Martial Arts Federation World Championships of Amateur MMA in partnership withBrave Combat Federation.[357] Bahrain have recorded an influx in global athletes visiting the nation for Mixed Martial Arts training during 2017.[358]Brave Combat Federation is a Bahrain-based Mixed Martial Arts promotion that has hosted events in 30 nations which is a record for hosting events in most number of nations by an MMA promotion.[359] Bahrain MMA Federation (BMMAF) has been set up under the patronage of SheikhKhalid bin Hamad Al Khalifa and the jurisdiction of the Sports Minister, SheikhNasser bin Hamad Al Khalifa.[360] The development of MMA in the nation is convened through KHK MMA, which ownsBrave Combat Federation which is the largest Mixed Martial Arts promotion in the Middle East.[361] Bahrain will be hosting Amateur World Championships 2017 in association withInternational Mixed Martial Arts Federation. Bahrain will be the first Asian andArab country to host the amateur MMA championship.[362] Bahrain is also home to KHKMMA Fight Team, that facilitates training for some of the prominent talent inMixed Martial Arts in the world who compete in BRAVE Combat Federation,PFL, andUFC.[363]
In 2018,Cricket was introduced in Bahrain under the initiative of KHK Sports and Exelon.[364] Bahrain Premier League 2018 comprised six franchise squads of 13 resident cricketers competing in the T20 format. The teams were SRam MRam Falcons, Kalaam Knight-Riders, Intex Lions, Bahrain Super Giants, Four Square Challengers and Awan Warriors.[365]
The Bahrain national football team playingAustralia on 10 June 2009, in a World Cup qualifier
Bahrain has aFormula One race track, which hosted the inauguralGulf AirBahrain Grand Prix on 4 April 2004, the first in an Arab country. This was followed by the Bahrain Grand Prix in 2005. Bahrain hosted the opening Grand Prix of the 2006 season on 12 March of that year. Both the above races were won byFernando Alonso ofRenault. The race has since been hosted annually, except for2011 when it was cancelled due toongoing anti-government protests.[373] The2012 race occurred despite concerns of the safety of the teams and the ongoingprotests in the country.[374] The decision to hold the race despite ongoing protests and violence[375] has been described as "controversial" byAl Jazeera English,[376]CNN,[377]AFP[378] andSky News.[379]The Independent named it "one of the most controversial in the history of the sport".[380]
In 2006, Bahrain also hosted its inaugural AustralianV8 Supercar event dubbed the "Desert 400". The V8s returned every November to theSakhir circuit until 2010, in which it was the second event of the series. The series has not returned since. TheBahrain International Circuit also features a full-lengthdragstrip where the Bahrain Drag Racing Club has organised invitational events featuring some of Europe's top drag racing teams to try to raise the profile of the sport in the Middle East.[381]
On 10 June 2024, the Bahrain Olympic Academy received theAthena honorary distinction for its role in aiding and supporting advancement of sports in its region. The honorary medal was presented to his highness ShaikhKhalid bin Hamad Al Khalifa by Isidoros Kouvelos, President ofIOA.[382][383]
^abcdRentz, G. "al- Baḥrayn".Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 15 March 2008[1][permanent dead link]
^Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren, Historical Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal Nations of Antiquity, Henry Bohn, 1854 p38
^Potts, D.T., in:Coinage of the Caravan Kingdoms: Studies in Ancient Arabian Monetization, Huth, Martin, and van Alfen, Peter G., (editors), Numismatic studies, The American Numismatic Society, New York, 2010, p. 36
^W. B. Fisher et al. The Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge University Press 1968 p40
^abHoles, Clive (2001).Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary. BRILL. pp. XXIV–XXVI.ISBN9004107630.Thus the pre-Islamic ethno-linguistic situation in eastern Arabia appear to have been a mixed tribal population of partially Christianised Arabs of diverse origins who probably spoke different old Arabian vernaculars; a mobile Persian-speaking population, possibly of traders and administrators, with strong links to Persia, with which they maintained close contact; a sedentary, non-tribal community of Aramaic-speaking farmers; a Persian clergy, which we know for certain, used Syriac as a language of liturgy and general writing, probably alongside Persian as a spoken language.
^Akbar Shāh Ḵẖān Najībābādī,History of Islam, Volume 1Archived 2 April 2023 at theWayback Machine, p. 194. Quote: "Again, the Holy Prophet «P sent Dihyah bin Khalifa Kalbi to the Byzantine king Heraclius, Hatib bin Abi Baltaeh to the king of Egypt and Alexandria; Allabn Al-Hazermi to Munzer bin Sawa the king of Bahrain; Amer bin Aas to the king of Oman. Salit bin Amri to Hozah bin Ali— the king of Yamama; Shiya bin Wahab to Haris bin Ghasanni to the king of Damascus"
^A letter purported to be from Muhammad to al-Tamimi is preserved at theBeit al-Qur'an Museum inHoora, Bahrain
^Smith, G.R. "Uyūnids".Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 16 March 2008[2]Archived 1 April 2020 at theWayback Machine
^Ownership deedsArchived 24 January 2016 at theWayback Machine to a palm garden on the island of Sitra, Bahrain, which was sold by Mariam bint Ahmed Al Sindi to Shaikh Salama Bin Saif Al Utbi, dated 1699–1111 Hijri,
^Wilkinson, John Craven (1991).Arabia's frontiers: the story of Britain's boundary drawing in the desert. I.B. Tauris. p. 44.
^Rihani, Ameen Fares (1930).Around the coasts of Arabia. Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 297.
^Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman, and Central Arabia, Geographical, Volume 1, 1905
^"Bahrain:"How was separated from Iran" ?". Iran Chamber Society.Archived from the original on 22 August 2023. Retrieved17 June 2012. Based on extracts fromMojtahedzadeh, Piruz (1995). "Bahrain: the land of political movements".Rahavard, A Persian Journal of Iranian Studies.XI (39).
^Mulligan, William E. (July–August 1976)."Air Raid! A Sequel".Saudi Aramco World. Archived fromthe original on 29 September 2012. Retrieved2 October 2012.
^abHamza, Abdul Aziz (2009).Tears on an Island: A History of Disasters in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Al Waad. p. 165.ISBN978-99901-92-22-3.
^Darwish, Adel (March 1999)."Rebellion in Bahrain".Middle East Review of International Affairs.3 (1).Archived from the original on 14 April 2012. Retrieved2 October 2012.
^Abdulla, Mohammed Ahmed; Zain al-'Abdeen, Bashir (2009).تاريخ البحرين الحديث (1500–2002) [Modern History of Bahrain (1500–2002)]. Bahrain: Historical Studies Centre,University of Bahrain. pp. 26, 29, 59.ISBN978-99901-06-75-6.
^W, Steve (8 August 2020)."HMS Clyde sold to Bahrain".UK Defence Journal. George Allison.Archived from the original on 10 May 2022. Retrieved8 August 2020.
^Ungoed-Thomas, Jon (5 February 2017)."Britain helps train "violent" Bahraini police".The Times.Archived from the original on 29 December 2018. Retrieved29 December 2018.the fund was used to pay for Bahrain's chief of police, Tariq al-Hassan, and other senior officers to travel to Belfast to learn how police in Northern Ireland deal with public protests.
^Rentz, G. "al- Kawāsim." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 15 March 2008[3][permanent dead link]
^"وثيقة بحرينية: الشيعة أقل من النصف".Al Jazeera. 4 July 2011. Archived fromthe original on 20 March 2023.كشفت وثيقة بحرينية رسمية حديثة أن نسبة المواطنين السنة من إجمالي مواطني البلاد تعادل 51%، في حين توقفت نسبة الطائفة الشيعية عند 49% [A recent official Bahraini document revealed that the percentage of Sunni citizens out of the country’s total citizens is 51%, while the percentage of the Shiite community stopped at 49%..]
Cole, Juan R. I. (1987). "Rival Empires of Trade and Imami Shiism in Eastern Arabia, 1300–1800".International Journal of Middle East Studies.19 (2):177–203.doi:10.1017/s0020743800031834.JSTOR163353.S2CID162702326.
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