The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on aclay tablet from the reign ofShar-Kali-Sharri (2217–2193 BC), of theAkkadian Empire.[3] Babylon was merely a religious and cultural centre at this point and was neither an independent state nor a large city. Instead, it was subject to the Akkadian Empire. After the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, the south Mesopotamian region was dominated by theGutian Dynasty for a few decades, before the rise of theThird Dynasty of Ur, which encompassed the whole of Mesopotamia, including the town of Babylon.
The town became part of a small independentcity-state with the rise of the first Babylonian Empire, now known as theOld Babylonian Empire, in the early second millennium BC. TheAmorite kingHammurabi founded the short-lived Old Babylonian Empire in the 18th century BC. He built Babylon into a major city and declared himself its king. Southern Mesopotamia became known asBabylonia, and Babylon eclipsedNippur as the region's holy city. The empire waned under Hammurabi's sonSamsu-iluna, and Babylon spent long periods underAssyrian,Kassite andElamite domination. After the Assyrians destroyed and then rebuilt it, Babylon became the capital of the short-livedNeo-Babylonian Empire, from 626 to 539 BC. Both theHanging Gardens of Babylon andWalls of Babylon were ranked among theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World, with the former allegedly existing between approximately 600 BC and AD1. However, there are questions about whether the Hanging Gardens of Babylon even existed, as there is no mention within any extant Babylonian texts of its existence.[4][5] After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the city came under the rule of theAchaemenid,Seleucid,Parthian,Roman,Sassanid, andMuslim empires. The last known habitation of the town dates from the 11th century, when it was referred to as the "small village of Babel".
It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the worldc. 1770 – c. 1670 BC, and againc. 612 – c. 320 BC. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000.[6] Estimates for the maximum extent of its area range from 890 (3½ sq. mi.)[7] to 900 ha (2,200 acres).[8] The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references incuneiform texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in theBible, descriptions in other classical writing, especially byHerodotus, and second-hand descriptions, citing the work ofCtesias andBerossus—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth century BC.[9]UNESCO inscribed Babylon as aWorld Heritage Site in 2019. The site receives thousands of visitors each year, almost all of whom are Iraqis.[10][11] Construction is rapidly increasing, which has caused encroachments upon the ruins.[12][13][14]
Babylon stopped functioning as an urban centre between the 2nd century BC and the 7th century CE. Over those 700 years, it gradually declined from a major city to near-total abandonment. Small communities have continued to live in the area, and nearby towns such as Hillah remain inhabited on the historical site.[15]
A map of Babylon, with major areas and modern-day villages
The spellingBabylon is the Latin representation ofKoine GreekBabylṓn (Βαβυλών), derived from the nativeAkkadian:𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠,romanized: Bābilim,lit. 'gate of thegod(s)'.[16] Thecuneiform spelling isKÁ.DIG̃IR.RAKI, corresponding to the Sumerian phraseKan dig̃irak.[17]The sign𒆍 (KÁ) is the logogram for "gate",𒀭 (DIG̃IR) means "god", and𒊏 (RA) represents thecoda of the worddig̃ir (-r) followed by the genitive suffix-ak. The final𒆠 (KI) is a determinative indicating that the previous signs are to be understood as a place name.
Archibald Sayce, writing in the 1870s, postulated that the Semitic name was a loan-translation of the originalSumerian name.[18] However, the "gate of god" interpretation is increasingly viewed as a Semiticfolk etymology to explain an unknown original non-Semitic placename.[19]I. J. Gelb in 1955 argued that the original name wasBabilla, of unknown meaning and origin, as there were other similarly named places inSumer, and there are no other examples of Sumerian place-names being replaced with Akkadian translations. He deduced that it later transformed into AkkadianBāb-ili(m), and that the Sumerian nameKan-dig̃irak was a loan translation of the Semitic folk etymology rather than the original name.[20][16] The retranslation of the Semitic name into Sumerian would have taken place at the time of the "Neo-Sumerian"Third Dynasty of Ur.[21] (Bab-Il).
Babylon in 1932
A fragmentary limestone votive inscription dated by paleography to theEarly Dynastic II period (c. c. 2700 BC) was suggested to include the name of Babylon.[22] It read "en5-[si] BAR.KI.BAR dumu a-hu-ì-lum ̆lu-ì-lum-be-l[í] lú-ur-kù-bí dím édamar-utu mu-gub-am6". Proposed as being in theAkkadian language though earlier than that language is attested, it refers to an unknown lord who was the governor (ENSI) of BAR.KI.BAR who constructed a temple for (possibly)Marduk, suggesting that the city might be Babylon.[23] During theED III period, sign placement was relatively fluid and so the KI sign could be seen as the determinative, with the name of the city as BAR.BAR, perhaps pronounced Babbar.[24] Paul-Alain Beaulieu proposes that the original name could mean "shining" "glowing" or "white". It would be likely that it was later read as Babbir, and then Babbil by swapping the consonant r with l.[23] The attribution to Marduk and to Babylon is considered doubtful.[16][25]
The earliest reasonably firm mention of the city of Babylon comes from one ofShar-Kali-Sharri's year names, which reports the founding of temples ofAnnunitum andIlaba in KÁ.DINGIRki, thought to be Babylon, indicating that the folk etymology was already widely known in theAkkadian Empire (c. 2334–2193 BC) period.[16] However, the original form of the name (Babbar/Babbir) was not forgotten, as seen from the phonetic spelling ba-ab-bí-lum in theUr III period,[26] and the spellings Pambalu and Babalu in theKassite period.[24]
Another attested spelling for the city of Babylon is TIN.TIR.KI, attested sparsely in theOld Babylonian period, known mostly from later Neo-Babylonian copies, and was in widespread usage in the 1st Millennium BC.[23] The spelling E.KI also appears in the 1st Millennium BC.[27][23]
In theHebrew Bible, the name appears asBabel (Hebrew:בָּבֶל,romanized: Bāḇel;Classical Syriac:ܒܒܠ,romanized: Bāḇēl,Imperial Aramaic:בבל Bāḇel; inArabic:بَابِلBābil), interpreted inGenesis 11:9 to mean "confusion", from the verbbilbél (בלבל, "to confuse").[28] The modern English verb,to babble ("to speak foolish, excited, or confusing talk"), is popularly thought to derive from this name but there is no direct connection.[29]
In some instances, ancient records use "Babylon" as a name for other cities, includingBorsippa within Babylon's sphere of influence, andNineveh for a brief period after the Assyrian sack of Babylon.[30][31]
A map of ruins in 1905, with locations and names of villages
From the accounts of modern travellers, I had expected to have found on the site of Babylon more, and less, than I actually did. Less, because I could have formed no conception of the prodigious extent of the whole ruins, or of the size, solidity, and perfect state, of some of the parts of them; and more, because I thought that I should have distinguished some traces, however imperfect, of many of the principal structures of Babylon. I imagined, I should have said: "Here were the walls, and such must have been the extent of the area. There stood the palace, and this most assuredly was the tower of Belus." – I was completely deceived: instead of a few insulated mounds, I found the whole face of the country covered with vestiges of building, in some places consisting of brick walls surprisingly fresh, in others merely of a vast succession of mounds of rubbish of such indeterminate figures, variety and extent, as to involve the person who should have formed any theory in inextricable confusion.
The site covers an area of about 1,000 hectares (3+3⁄4 sq mi), with about450 hectares (1+3⁄4 sq mi) within the several kilometer (mile) long city walls, containing a number of mounds, the most prominent of which are Kasr, Merkes (13 meters; 43 ft above the plain), Homera, Ishin-Aswad, Sahn, Amran, and Babil.[33] It is roughly bisected by the Shatt Al-Hillah, a branch of theEuphrates river, which has shifted slightly since ancient times. The local water table has risen, making excavation of lower levels difficult. Prior to the heavy use of baked bricks in the reign of Neo-Babylonian rulerNebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC), construction at Babylon was primarily of unbaked brick, with the occasional use of baked bricks or bitumen.[34]
Kasr – also called Palace or Castle, it was the location of theNeo-Babylonian zigguratEtemenanki of Nebuchadnezzar II. It lies in the center of the site and rises to 19 meters (62 ft) above the plain.
Amran Ibn Ali – about 22 meters (72 ft) high and at the south of the site. It is the site ofEsagila, a temple ofMarduk that also contained shrines toEa andNabu.
Homera – a reddish-colored mound on the west side. Most of theHellenistic remains are here. Most of the remains of the ziggurat Etemenanki were heaped here when it was demolished byAlexander the Great in 331 BC.[35]
Babil – a mound about 25 meters (82 ft) high at the northern end of the site. Its bricks have been subject to looting since ancient times. It held a palace built by Nebuchadnezzar.
Subsequent excavation, looting, and reconstruction have reduced these original heights found by the German excavators.
The location of theQurnah Disaster, where hundreds of cases of antiquities from Fresnel's mission were lost in 1855"Entry of Alexander into Babylon", a 1665 painting byCharles LeBrun, depicts Alexander the Great's uncontested entry into the city of Babylon, envisioned with pre-existingHellenistic architecture.
Fulgence Fresnel,Julius Oppert andFelix Thomas heavily excavated Babylon from 1852 to 1854.[44][45] Much of their work was lost in theQurnah Disaster, when a transport ship and four rafts sank on theTigris river in May 1855.[46] They had been carrying over 200 crates of artifacts from various excavation missions, when they were attacked by Tigris river pirates nearAl-Qurnah.[47][48] Recovery efforts, assisted by the Ottoman authorities and British Residence in Baghdad, loaded the equivalent of 80 crates on a ship forLe Havre in May 1856.[49][46] Few antiquities from the Fresnel mission made it to France.[46][47][44] Subsequent efforts to recover the lost antiquities from the Tigris, including a Japanese expedition in 1971–72, have been largely unsuccessful.[49]
Original tiles of the processional street. Ancient Babylon, Mesopotamia, Iraq.
Henry Rawlinson andGeorge Smith worked there briefly in 1854.[50] The next excavation was conducted byHormuzd Rassam on behalf of theBritish Museum. Work began in 1879, continuing until 1882, and was prompted by widespread looting of the site. Using industrial scale digging in search of artifacts, Rassam recovered a large quantity of cuneiform tablets and other finds. The zealous excavation methods, common at the time, caused significant damage to the archaeological context.[51][52] Many tablets had appeared on the market in 1876 before Rassam's excavation began.[2]
Mušḫuššu (sirrush) andaurochs on either side of the processional street. Ancient Babylon, Mesopotamia, Iraq.
A team from theGerman Oriental Society led byRobert Koldewey conducted the first scientificarchaeological excavations at Babylon. The work was conducted daily from 1899 until 1917. A major problem for Koldewey was the large scale mining of baked bricks, which began in the 19th century and which were mainly sourced from the time of Nebuchadnezzar II. At the time, excavations for brick mining, for various building projects, including the Hindiya dam were under way.[53] The primary efforts of the dig involved the temple ofMarduk and the processional way leading up to it, as well as the city wall.[54][55][56][57][58][59]
Artifacts, including pieces of theIshtar Gate and hundreds of recovered tablets, were sent back to Germany, where Koldewey's colleagueWalter Andrae reconstructed them into displays at theVorderasiatisches Museum Berlin.[60][61] The Koldewey expedition recovered artifacts from theOld Babylonian period.[62] These included 967 clay tablets, with 564 tablets from theMiddle Babylonian period, stored in private houses, with Sumerian literature and lexical documents.[2] The German archaeologists fled beforeoncoming British troops in 1917, and again, many objects went missing in the following years.[2]
Further work by theGerman Archaeological Institute was conducted by Heinrich J. Lenzen in 1956 and Hansjörg Schmid in 1962, working the Hellenistic, Parthian, Sasanian, and Arabic levels of the site. Lenzen's work dealt primarily with theHellenistic theatre, and Schmid focused on the temple zigguratEtemenanki.[63][64][65]
A topographical survey at the site was conducted in 1974, followed in 1977 by a review of the stratigraphical position of the main monuments and reconsideration of ancient water levels, by the Turin Centre for Archaeological Research and Excavations in the Middle East and Asia, and the Iraqi-Italian Institute of Archaeological Sciences.[66] The focus was on clearing up issues raised by re-examination of the old German data. Additional work in 1987–1989 concentrated on the area surrounding the Ishara andNinurta temples in the Shu-Anna city-quarter of Babylon.[67][68][69]
A number of Iraqi excavations have occurred at Babylon, the earliest in 1938. From 1979 to 1981 excavation and restoration work was conducted at the Ninmah Temple, Istar Temple, and the Southern Palace.[70][71][72][73][74][75] Occasional excavations and restorations continued in the 1970s and 1980s.[76]
During the restoration efforts in Babylon, the Iraqi State Organization for Antiquities and Heritage conducted extensive research, excavation and clearing, but wider publication of these archaeological activities has been limited.[77][78] Most of the known tablets from all modern excavations remain unpublished.[2]
The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references incuneiform texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in theBible, descriptions in other classical writing, especially byHerodotus, and second-hand descriptions citing the work ofCtesias andBerossus—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth century BC.[9] Babylon was described, perhaps even visited, by a number of classical historians includingCtesias,Herodotus,Quintus Curtius Rufus,Strabo, andCleitarchus. These reports are of variable accuracy and some of the content was politically motivated, but these still provide useful information.[79]
Historical knowledge of early Babylon must be pieced together from epigraphic remains found elsewhere, such as atUruk,Nippur,Sippar,Mari, andHaradum.
The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on a clay tablet from the reign of Shar-Kali-Sharri (2217–2193 BC) of the Akkadian Empire. References to the city of Babylon can be found in Akkadian and Sumerian literature from the late third millennium BC. One of the earliest is a tablet describing the Akkadian king Šar-kali-šarri laying the foundations in Babylon of new temples forAnnūnı̄tum andIlaba. Babylon also appears in the administrative records of theThird Dynasty of Ur, which collected in-kind tax payments and appointed anensi as local governor.[16][80]
The so-calledWeidner Chronicle (also known asABC 19) states thatSargon of Akkad,c. 23rd century BC in theshort chronology, had built Babylon "in front of Akkad" (ABC 19:51). A later chronicle states that Sargon "dug up the dirt of the pit of Babylon, and made a counterpart of Babylon next to Akkad". (ABC 20:18–19). Van de Mieroop has suggested that those sources may refer to the much later Assyrian kingSargon II of theNeo-Assyrian Empire, rather than Sargon of Akkad.[31]
Ctesias, quoted byDiodorus Siculus and inGeorge Syncellus'sChronographia, claimed to have access to manuscripts from Babylonian archives, which date the founding of Babylon to 2286 BC, under the reign of its first king,Belus.[81] A similar figure is found in the writings ofBerossus, who, according to Pliny,[82] stated that astronomical observations commenced at Babylon 490 years before the Greek era ofPhoroneus, indicating 2243 BC.Stephanus of Byzantium wrote that Babylon was built 1002 years before the date given byHellanicus of Lesbos for the siege of Troy (1229 BC), which would date Babylon's foundation to 2231 BC.[83] All of these dates place Babylon's foundation in the23rd century BC. However, cuneiform records have not been found to correspond with these classical, post-cuneiform accounts.
TheQueen of the Night relief. The figure could be an aspect of the goddessIshtar, Babylonian goddess of sex and love.
The first attested mention of Babylon was in the late 3rd millennium BC during the Akkadian Empire reign of rulerShar-Kali-Sharri one of whose year names mentions building two temples there. Babylon was ruled by ensi (governors) for the empire. Some of the known governors were Abba, Arši-aḫ, Itūr-ilum, Murteli, Unabatal, and Puzur-Tutu. After that nothing is heard of the city until the time of Sumu-la-El. After around 1950 BC Amorite kingdoms will appear in Uruk and Larsa in the south.[25]
A map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in 1792 BC and upon his death in 1750 BCOld Babyloniancylinder seal,hematite. This seal was probably made in a workshop atSippar (about 65 km or 40 mi north of Babylon on the map above) either during, or shortly before, the reign ofHammurabi.[84] It depicts the king making an animal offering to the sun godShamash.Linescan camera image of the cylinder seal above, reversed to resemble an impression
According to a Babylonian king list,Amorite rule in Babylon began (c. 19th or 18th century BC) with a chieftain namedSumu-abum, who declared independence from the neighboring city-state ofKazallu.Sumu-la-El, whose dates may be concurrent with those of Sumu-abum, is usually given as the progenitor of theFirst Babylonian dynasty. Both are credited with building the walls of Babylon. In any case, the records describe Sumu-la-El's military successes establishing a regional sphere of influence for Babylon.[85]
Babylon was initially a minor city-state, and controlled little surrounding territory. Its first four Amorite rulers did not assume the title of king. The older and more powerful states ofElam,Isin, andLarsa overshadowed Babylon until it became the capital ofHammurabi's short-lived empire about a century later. Hammurabi (r. 1792–1750 BC) is famous for codifying the laws of Babylonia into theCode of Hammurabi. He conquered all of the cities and city states of southern Mesopotamia, includingIsin,Larsa,Ur,Uruk,Nippur,Lagash,Eridu,Kish,Adab,Eshnunna,Akshak,Shuruppak,Bad-tibira,Sippar, andGirsu, coalescing them into one kingdom, ruled from Babylon. Hammurabi also invaded and conqueredElam to the east, and the kingdoms ofMari andEbla to the northwest. After a conflict with theOld Assyrian period kingIshme-Dagan, he forced his successor to pay tribute late in his reign.
After the reign of Hammurabi, the whole of southern Mesopotamia came to be known asBabylonia. From this time, Babylon supplantedNippur andEridu as the major religious centers of southern Mesopotamia. Hammurabi's empire destabilized after his death. The far south of Mesopotamia broke away, forming the nativeSealand Dynasty, and the Elamites appropriated territory in eastern Mesopotamia. The Amorite dynasty remained in power in Babylon, which again became a small city state. After the destruction of the city theKassites rose to control the region.
Texts from Old Babylon often include references toShamash, the sun-god of Sippar, treated as a supreme deity, andMarduk, considered as his son. Marduk was later elevated to a higher status and Shamash lowered, perhaps reflecting Babylon's rising political power.[16]
In 1595 BC,[a] the city is thought to have been sacked byMursili I, ruler of theHittite Empire sometime during the 31-year reign ofSamsu-Ditana, last ruler of the First Dynasty of Babylon. This is based on a line in the century laterTelepinu Proclamation reading "Subsequently he marched to Babylon and he destroyed Babylon, and defeated the Hurrian troops, and brought captives and possessions of Babylon to Hattusa.".[86] Originally it was thought that cult statues of Babylon, including Marduk, were carried off to theKingdom of Khana but the source Agum-Kakrime Inscription is now generally considered a much later forgery.[87] Thereafter, theKassite dynasty took power in the city of Babylon, renaming it Karduniash, ushering in a dynasty that lasted for 435 years, until 1160 BC.
Babylon was weakened during theKassite era, and as a result, Kassite Babylon began payingtribute to the Pharaoh ofEgypt,Thutmose III, following his eighth campaign against Mitanni.[88] Kassite Babylon eventually became subject to theMiddle Assyrian Empire (1365–1053 BC) to the north, andElam to the east, with both powers vying for control of the city.
By 1155 BC, after continued attacks and annexing of territory by the Assyrians and Elamites, the Kassites were deposed in Babylon. An Akkadian south Mesopotamian dynasty then ruled for the first time. However, Babylon remained weak and subject to domination by Assyria. Its ineffectual native kings were unable to prevent new waves of foreign West Semitic settlers from the deserts of the Levant, including theArameans andSuteans in the 11th century BC, and finally theChaldeans in the 9th century BC, entering and appropriating areas of Babylonia for themselves. The Arameans briefly ruled in Babylon during the late 11th century BC.
During the rule of theNeo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC), Babylonia was under constantAssyrian domination or direct control. During the reign ofSennacherib of Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt, led by a chieftain namedMerodach-Baladan, in alliance with theElamites, and suppressed only by the complete destruction of the city of Babylon. In 689 BC, its walls, temples and palaces were razed, and the rubble was thrown into the Arakhtu, the sea bordering the earlier Babylon on the south. The destruction of the religious center shocked many, and the subsequent murder of Sennacherib by two of his own sons while praying to the godNisroch was considered an act of atonement.
Consequently, his successor,Esarhaddon hastened to rebuild the old city and make it his residence for part of the year. After his death, Babylonia was governed by his elder son, theAssyrian princeShamash-shum-ukin, who eventually started a civil war in 652 BC against his own brother,Ashurbanipal, who ruled inNineveh. Shamash-shum-ukin enlisted the help of other peoples against Assyria, includingElam,Persia, theChaldeans, andSuteans of southern Mesopotamia, and theCanaanites andArabs dwelling in the deserts south ofMesopotamia.
Once again, Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians, starved into surrender and its allies were defeated. Ashurbanipal celebrated a "service of reconciliation", but did not venture to "take the hands" ofBel. An Assyrian governor namedKandalanu was appointed as ruler of the city. Ashurbanipal did collect texts from Babylon for inclusion in his extensivelibrary at Ninevah.[2]
A cuneiform cylinder from reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, honoring the exorcism and reconstruction of the zigguratEtemenanki by Nabopolassar.[89]Detail of a relief from the reconstruction of theIshtar Gate in thePergamon Museum, BerlinA reconstruction of the blue-tiled Ishtar Gate, Pergamon Museum, Berlin, which was the northern entrance to Babylon. It was named for the goddess of love and war. Bulls and dragons, symbols of the godMarduk, decorated the gate.
UnderNabopolassar, Babylon escaped Assyrian rule, and the allied Medo-Babylonian armies destroyed the Assyrian Empire between 626 BC and 609 BC. Babylon thus became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian (sometimes called the Chaldean) Empire.[90][91]
With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activity ensued, particularly during the reign of his sonNebuchadnezzar II (604–561 BC).[92] Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including theEtemenankiziggurat, and the construction of theIshtar Gate—the most prominent of eight gates around Babylon. A reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate is located in thePergamon Museum inBerlin.
Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of theHanging Gardens of Babylon, one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World, said to have been built for his homesick wife,Amytis. Whether the gardens actually existed is a matter of dispute. German archaeologistRobert Koldewey speculated that he had discovered its foundations, but many historians disagree about the location.Stephanie Dalley has argued that the hanging gardens were actually located near the Assyrian capital,Nineveh.[93]
Nebuchadnezzar is also notoriously associated with theBabylonian exile of the Jews, the result of an imperial technique of pacification, used also by the Assyrians, in which ethnic groups in conquered areas weredeported en masse to the capital.[94] According to the Hebrew Bible, hedestroyedSolomon's Temple andexiled the Jews to Babylon. The defeat was also recorded in theBabylonian Chronicles.[95][96]
In 539 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell toCyrus the Great, king ofPersia, with a military engagement known as theBattle of Opis. Babylon's walls were considered impenetrable. The only way into the city was through one of its many gates, or through the Euphrates River. Metal grates were installed underwater, allowing the river to flow through the city walls while preventing intrusion. The Persians devised a plan to enter the city via the river. During a Babylonian national feast, Cyrus' troops upstream diverted the Euphrates River, allowing Cyrus' soldiers to enter the city through the lowered water. The Persian army conquered the outlying areas of the city while the majority of Babylonians at the city center were unaware of the breach. The account was elaborated upon byHerodotus[97][79]
Herodotus also described a moat, an enormously tall and broad wall, cemented withbitumen and with buildings on top, and a hundred gates to the city. He writes that the Babylonians wear turbans and perfume and bury their dead in honey, that they practice ritual prostitution, and that three tribes among themeat nothing but fish. The hundred gates can be considered a reference toHomer. Following the pronouncement ofArchibald Henry Sayce in 1883, Herodotus' account of Babylon has largely been considered to represent Greek folklore rather than an authentic voyage to Babylon. However, recently, Dalley and others have suggested taking Herodotus' account seriously.[97][98]
According to2 Chronicles 36 of theHebrew Bible, Cyrus later issued a decree permitting captive people, including theJews, to return to their own lands. The text found on theCyrus Cylinder has traditionally been seen by biblical scholars as corroborative evidence of this policy, although the interpretation is disputed[by whom?] because the text identifies only Mesopotamian sanctuaries but makes no mention of Jews, Jerusalem, or Judea.
Under Cyrus and the subsequent Persian kingDarius I, Babylon became the capital city of the 9thSatrapy (Babylonia in the south and Athura in the north), as well as a center of learning and scientific advancement. InAchaemenid Persia, the ancient Babylonian arts ofastronomy andmathematics were revitalized, and Babylonian scholars completed maps of constellations. The city became the administrative capital of thePersian Empire and remained prominent for over two centuries. Many important archaeological discoveries have been made that can provide a better understanding of that era.[99][100]
The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies ofMarduk, who was the most important god, but by the reign ofDarius III, over-taxation and the strain of numerous wars led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the destabilization of the surrounding region. There were numerous attempts at rebellion and in 522 BC (Nebuchadnezzar III), 521 BC (Nebuchadnezzar IV) and 482 BC (Bel-shimani and Shamash-eriba) native Babylonian kings briefly regained independence. However, these revolts were quickly repressed and Babylon remained under Persian rule for two centuries, untilAlexander the Great's entry in 331 BC. Following his conquests,he died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon on the evening of 10–11 June 323 BC.
In October of 331 BC,Darius III, the lastAchaemenid king of the Persian Empire, was defeated by the forces of theAncient Macedonian rulerAlexander the Great at theBattle of Gaugamela, occupying Babylon. Under Alexander, Babylon again flourished as a center of learning and commerce. However, following Alexander's death in 323 BC in the palace ofNebuchadnezzar, his empire was divided amongst his generals, theDiadochi, anddecades of fighting soon began. Babylon was within theSeleucid Empire throughout most of this period, and declined somewhat in importance but remained active.[101]
Under theParthian andSassanid Empires, Babylon (like Assyria) became a province of thesePersian Empires for nine centuries, until after AD 650.[citation needed] Although it was captured briefly byTrajan in AD 116 to be part of the newly conquered province ofMesopotamia, his successorHadrian relinquished his conquests east of the Euphrates river, which became again the Roman Empire's eastern boundary.[102]
However, Babylon maintained its own culture and people, who spoke varieties ofAramaic, and who continued to refer to their homeland as Babylon. Examples of their culture are found in theBabylonian Talmud, theGnosticMandaean religion,Eastern RiteChristianity andthe religion of the philosopherMani. Christianity was introduced to Mesopotamia in the 1st and 2nd centuries, and Babylon was the seat of a Bishop of theChurch of the East until well after theArab/Islamic conquest. Coins from the Parthian, Sasanian and Arabic periods excavated in Babylon demonstrate the continuity of settlement there.[103]
In the mid-7th century, Mesopotamia was conquered and settled by the expandingMuslim Empire, and a period ofIslamization followed. Babylon was dissolved as a province andAramaic andChurch of the East Christianity eventually became marginalized. Ibn Hawqal (10th century) and Arab scholar al-Qazwini (13th century) describe Babylon (Babil) as a small village.[104] The latter described a well referred to as the 'Dungeon of Daniel' that was visited by Christians and Jews during holidays. The grave-shrine of Amran ibn Ali was visited by Muslims.
According to medieval Arabic writings, Babylon was a popular site to extract bricks,[2] which were used to build cities from Baghdad to Basra.[105]
European travellers, in many cases, could not discover the city's location, or mistookFallujah for it.Benjamin of Tudela, a 12th-century traveller, mentions Babylon, but it is not clear if he went there. Others referred toBaghdad as Babylon or New Babylon and described various structures encountered in the region as theTower of Babel.[106]Pietro della Valle travelled to the village of Babil in Babylon in the 17th century and noted the existence of both baked and driedmudbricks cemented withbitumen.[105][107]
The eighteenth century saw an increasing flow of travellers to Babylon, includingCarsten Niebuhr andPierre-Joseph de Beauchamp, as well as measurements of its latitude.[108] Beauchamp's memoir, published in English translation in 1792, provoked theBritish East India Company to direct its agents in Baghdad and Basra to acquire Mesopotamian relics for shipment to London.[109]
By 1905, there were several villages in Babylon, one of which was Qwaresh with about 200 households located within the boundaries of the ancient inner city walls. The village grew due to the need for laborers during the German Oriental Society excavations between 1899 and 1917.[citation needed]
In February 1978, theBa'athist government of Iraq underSaddam Hussein, began the "Archaeological Restoration of Babylon Project": reconstructing features of the ancient city atop its ruins. These features included the Southern Palace of Nebuchadnezzar, with 250 rooms, five courtyards, and a 30-meter (98 ft) entrance arch. The project reinforced the Processional Way, theLion of Babylon, and an amphitheater constructed in the city's Hellenistic era. In 1982, the government minted a set of seven coins, displaying iconic features of Babylon. A Babylon International Festival was held in September 1987, and annually thereafter until 2002, excepting 1990 and 1991, to showcase this work. The proposed reconstruction of the Hanging Gardens and the great ziggurat never took place.[111][110][112]
Hussein installed a portrait of himself and Nebuchadnezzar at the entrance to the ruins and inscribed his name on many of the bricks, in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar. One frequent inscription reads "This was built by Saddam Hussein, son of Nebuchadnezzar, to glorify Iraq." These bricks became sought after as collector's items after Hussein's downfall.[113] Similar projects were conducted atNineveh,Nimrud,Assur andHatra, to demonstrate the magnificence of Arab achievement.[114]
In the 1980s, Hussein completely removed the village of Qwaresh, displacing its residents.[115][14] He later constructed a modern palace in that area called Saddam Hill, over some of the old ruins, in the pyramidal style of aziggurat. In 2003, he intended to have acable car line constructed over Babylon, but plans were halted by the2003 invasion of Iraq.
Following the2003 invasion of Iraq, the area around Babylon came under the control ofUS troops, before being handed over toPolish forces in September 2003.[116] US forces under the command of GeneralJames T. Conway of theI Marine Expeditionary Force were criticized for building the military base "Camp Alpha", with ahelipad and other facilities on ancient Babylonian ruins during theIraq War. US forces occupied the site for some time and caused irreparable damage to the archaeological record. In a report of theBritish Museum's Near East department, John Curtis described how parts of the archaeological site were levelled to create a landing area for helicopters, and parking lots for heavy vehicles. Curtis wrote of the occupation forces:
They caused substantial damage to theIshtar Gate, one of the most famous monuments from antiquity [...] US military vehicles crushed 2,600-year-old brick pavements, archaeological fragments were scattered across the site, more than 12 trenches were driven into ancient deposits and military earth-moving projects contaminated the site for future generations of scientists.[117]
A US military spokesman claimed that engineering operations were discussed with the "head of the Babylon museum".[118] The head of the Iraqi State Board for Heritage and Antiquities, Donny George, said that the "mess will take decades to sort out" and criticisedPolish troops for causing "terrible damage" to the site.[119][120] Poland resolved in 2004 to place the city under Iraq control, and commissioned a report titledReport Concerning the Condition of the Preservation of the Babylon Archaeological Site, which it presented at a meeting in December 2004.[111] In 2005, the site was handed over to the Iraqi Ministry of Culture.[116]
In April 2006, Colonel John Coleman, former Chief of Staff for the I Marine Expeditionary Force, offered to issue an apology for the damage done by military personnel under his command. He also claimed that the US presence had deterred far greater damage by other looters.[121] An April 2006 article stated that UN officials and Iraqi leaders have plans to restore Babylon, making it into a cultural center.[122][123]
Two museums and a library, containing replicas of artifacts and local maps and reports, were raided and destroyed.[124]
In May 2009, the provincial government ofBabil reopened the site to tourists. Over 35,000 people visited in 2017.[10] An oil pipeline runs through an outer wall of the city.[125][126] In July 2019, the site of Babylon was inscribed as aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site.[11]
Thousands of people reside in Babylon within the perimeter of the ancient outer city walls, and communities in and around them are "rapidly developing from compact, dense settlements to sprawling suburbia despite laws restricting constructions".[40][14] Modern villages include Zwair West, Sinjar Village, Qwaresh, and Al-Jimjmah, among which the first two are better off economically.[127] Most residents primarily depend on daily wage earning or have government jobs inAl-Hillah. Some cultivate dates, citrus fruits, figs, fodder for livestock and limited cash crops, although income from the land alone is not enough to sustain a family.[14] Both Shi'a and Sunni Muslims live in Sinjar village, with mosques for both groups.[14]
The State Board of Antiquities and Heritage (SBAH) is the main authority responsible for the conservation of the archeological site. They are assisted by Antiquity and Heritage Police, and maintain a permanent presence there. TheWorld Monuments Fund is involved in research and conservation. The SBAH Provincial Inspectorate Headquarters is located within the boundaries of the ancient inner city walls on the east side. Several staff members and their families reside in subsidized housing in this area.
A 1493woodcut in theNuremberg Chronicle, depicting the fall of Babylon"The Walls of Babylon and the Temple of Bel (Or Babel)", by 19th-century illustratorWilliam Simpson – influenced by early archaeological investigations
Before modern archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia, the appearance of Babylon was largely a mystery, and typically envisioned by Western artists as a hybrid between ancient Egyptian, classical Greek, and contemporary Ottoman culture.[128]
Due to Babylon's historical significance as well as references to it in theBible, the word "Babylon" in various languages has acquired a generic meaning of a large, bustling diverse city. Examples include:
Babylon is used inreggae music as a concept in theRastafari belief system, denoting the materialisticcapitalist world, or any form of imperialist evil. It is believed that Babylon actively seeks to exploit and oppress the people of the world, specifically people of African descent. It is believed by Rastafarians that Babylon attempts to forbid the smoking of ganja because this sacred herb opens minds to the truth.[129]
Babylon 5 – Ascience fiction series set on a futuristicspace station that acts as a trading and diplomatic nexus between many different cultures. Many stories focus on the theme of different societies and cultures uniting, respecting differences, and learning from each other rather than fighting or looking on each other with prejudice and suspicion.[citation needed]
InGenesis 10:10, Babel (Babylon) is described as founded byNimrod along withUruk,Akkad and perhapsCalneh—all of them inShinar ("Calneh" is now sometimes translated not as a proper name but as the phrase "all of them"). Another story is given in Genesis 11, which describes a united human race, speaking one language, migrating to Shinar to establish a city and tower—theTower of Babel. God halts construction of the tower by scattering humanity across the earth and confusing their communication so they are unable to understand each other in the same language.
According to2 Kings 20:12 andIsaiah 39 of the Hebrew Bible after Hezekiah, the king of Judah, became ill,Baladan, king of Babylon, sent a letter and gifts to him. Hezekiah showed all of his treasures to the delegation, and the prophet Isaiah later said to him: "Behold, the days come, that all that is in thine house, and that which thy fathers have laid up in store unto this day, shall be carried into Babylon: nothing shall be left, saith the LORD".
According toDaniel 5 the prophet Daniel lived in Babylon for most of his life. Nebuchadnezzar made Daniel ruler over the entire province of Babylon for having interpreted his dream. Years later, Belshazzar held a banquet, at which fingers of a hand appeared and wrote on a wall. Daniel was called to provide an interpretation of the writings, upon which he explained that God had put an end to Belshazzar's kingdom. Belshazzar was killed that very night, and Darius the Mede took over the kingdom.
Isaiah 13:19 says the following regarding Babylon: "And Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency, shall be as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation: neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there; neither shall the shepherds make their fold there."Jeremiah 50 says that Babylon "shall not be inhabited, but it shall be wholly desolate".
InJewish tradition, Babylon symbolizes an oppressor against which righteous believers must struggle.[citation needed] InChristianity, Babylon symbolizes worldliness and evil. Prophecies sometimes symbolically link the kings of Babylon withLucifer.Nebuchadnezzar II, sometimes conflated withNabonidus, appears as the foremost ruler in this narrative.[131]
^abcdefg[1] Pedersén, Olof, "Excavated and Unexcavated Libraries in Babylon", Babylon: Wissenskultur in Orient und Okzident, edited by Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Margarete van Ess and Joachim Marzahn, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 47-68, 2011
^Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2017). A History of Babylon, 2200 BC – AD 75. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Wiley. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-119-45907-1. Retrieved 2022-08-27.
^Finkel, Irving and Seymour, Michael (2008). Babylon: City of Wonders. London: British Museum Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7141-1171-1.
^Tertius Chandler.Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census (1987), St. David's University Press ("etext.org". Archived from the original on 2008-02-11. Retrieved2010-04-18.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)).ISBN0-88946-207-0. SeeHistorical urban community sizes.
^Liane Jakob-Rost, Joachim Marzahn:Babylon, ed. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Vorderasiatisches Museum (Kleine Schriften 4), 2nd ed., Putbus 1990, p. 2
^Gelb, I. J. (1994). "The Name of Babylon". In Hess, Richard S.; Tsumura, David Toshio (eds.).I studied inscriptions from before the flood: ancient Near Eastern, literary, and linguistic approaches to Genesis 1–11. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. pp. 266–269.ISBN9780931464881.OCLC31239619.
^Dietz Otto Edzard:Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen, Beck, Munich 2004, p. 121.
^[2] Stephens, Ferris J, "Votive And Historical Texts From Babylonia And Assyria", Yale University Press, 1937
^abRients de Boer. "Beginnings of Old Babylonian Babylon: Sumu-Abum and Sumu-La-El." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 70, The American Schools of Oriental Research, 2018, pp. 53–86
^[3] Da Riva, Rocío, "Urban Religion in First Millennium BCE Babylonia", in Naming and Mapping the Gods in the Ancient Mediterranean, pp. 763–790, 2022
^van de Mieroop, Marc, "Reading Babylon", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 107, no. 2, pp. 257–75, 2003
^[4] Claudius J. Rich, "Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon", 1815
^[5] Claudius J. Rich, "Second memoir on Babylon; containing an inquiry into the correspondence between the ancient descriptions of Babylon, and the remains still visible on the site", 1818
^[6] Claudius J. Rich, "Narrative of a journey to the site of Babylon in 1811", Posthumous compilation, 1839
^[7] Rawlinson, Henry C., "On the Birs Nimrud, or the Great Temple of Borsippa", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 18, pp. 1–34, 1861
^Julian Reade, "Hormuzd Rassam and his discoveries", Iraq, vol. 55, pp. 39–62, 1993
^[8] Pedersén, O., "Work on a Digital Model of Babylon Using Archaeological and Textual Evidence", Mesopotamia 46, pp. 9–22, 2011
^[9]Robert Koldewey, "Das wieder erstehende Babylon, die bisherigen Ergebnisse der deutschen Ausgrabungen", J.C. Hinrichs, 1913; Agnes Sophia Griffith Johns (translator),The Excavations at Babylon, Macmillan and Co., 1914. "Up to the present time only about half the work has been accomplished, although since it began we have worked daily, both summer and winter, with from 200 to 250 workmen" (p. v).
^[10] R. Koldewey, "Die Tempel von Babylon und Borsippa", WVDOG, vol. 15, pp. 37–49, 1911(in German)
^[11] R. Koldewey, "Das Ischtar-Tor in Babylon Nach Den Ausgrabungen Durch Die Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft", WVDOG, vol. 32, 1918
^F. Wetzel, "Die Stadtmauren von Babylon", WVDOG, vol. 48, pp. 1–83, 1930
^F. Wetzel and F.H. Weisbach, "Das Hauptheiligtum des Marduk in Babylon: Esagila und Etemenanki", WVDOG, vol. 59, pp. 1–36, 1938
^F. Wetzel et al., "Das Babylon der Spätzeit", WVDOG, vol. 62, Gebr. Mann, 1957 (1998 reprintISBN3-7861-2001-3)
^[12] Di Chiara, Anita, et al., "An archaeomagnetic study of the Ishtar Gate, Babylon", Plos one 19.1, 2024
^Douglas Frayne, "Babylon", Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 B.C.): Early Periods, Volume 4, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 323–438, 1990
^[13] Lenzen, H. J., "The Greek theatre in Babylon", Sumer 15, pp. 39, 1959
^Hansjörg Schmid, "Der Tempelturm Etemenanki in Babylon", Zabern, 1995,ISBN3-8053-1610-0
^Schmidt, J., "Das Bīt Akītu von Babylon. Mit einem Beitrag von B. Finster", BaM 33, pp. 281–31, 2002
^G. Bergamini, "Levels of Babylon Reconsidered", Mesopotamia, vol. 12, pp. 111–152, 1977
^[14] G. Bergamini, "Preliminary Report on the 1987 Season of Excavations at Babylon, Iraq", Sumer 47, pp. 30–34, 1995
^G. Bergamini, "Excavations in Shu-anna Babylon 1987", Mesopotamia, vol. 23, pp. 5–17, 1988
^G. Bergamini, "Preliminary report on the 1988–1989 operations at Babylon Shu-Anna", Mesopotamia, vol. 25, pp. 5–12, 1990
^[15] Abdul-Razzak, Wahbi, "Ishtar gate and the inner wall" Sumer 41, pp. 19, 22, Arabic section pp. 34–35, 1985
^[16] Ali, Shah Mohammed, "The Southern Palace", Sumer 41, pp. 52–54, Arabic section pp. 77–82, 1985
^[17] Al-Suba’ai, ‘Ata Allha Mohammed, "Ishtar temple and the residential quarter west of the temple", Sumer 41, pp. 63–66, Arabicpp. 101–107, 1985
^[18] Alwan, Kamil Shihab, "The Vaulted Structure", Sumer 41, pp. 58–59, Arabic section, pp. 94–97., 1985
^[19] Isḥaq, Danial, "The excavations at the southern part of the procession street and the Nabû ša ḫarê temple", Sumer 41, pp. 30–33, Arabic section, pp. 48–54, Figs. 1–18, 1985
^[20] Kamil, Ahmed Mohammed, "Excavation at the northeastern part of the inner wall", Sumer 41, pp. 20–21, Arabic section, pp. 36–42, 1985
^Damerji, Moayad Said Basim, "Babylon – ka.dingir.ra – “gate of god”. The story of a city killed by legends andoblivion", Mesopotamia 47, pp. 1–102, 2012
^"Excavations in Iraq 1981–1982, Iraq, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 199–224, 1983
^Farouk N. H. Al-Rawi, Nabopolassar's Restoration Work on the Wall "Imgur-Enlil at Babylon, Iraq, vol. 47, pp. 1–13, 1985
^The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World,George Rawlinson, Vol. 4, p. 526–527.
^Al-Gailani Werr, L., 1988. Studies in the chronology and regional style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Volume 23.
^Vedeler (2006), pp. 8–15. "However, this later tradition is almost certainly a simplification or even a reworking of the actual events surrounding Sumu-abum, who was never regarded as an actual ancestor to the other kings of the Babylon I dynasty (Edzard 1957:122); in reality the relationship of Sumu-abum to Babylon was much more complex. It was long been noted that many of Sumu-abum's year names are identical or virtually identical to the year names of Sumu-la-el, whom we know for certain was king of Babylon. Goddeeris (2002:319–320) sums these parallels up as follows: Sa 1 and 2 / Sl 5 and 6: building the wall of Babylon. Sa 9 / Sl 'b': building the wall of Dilbat. Sa 13/14 / Sl 20/21: the destruction and seizure of Kazallu."
^[21] Edgar H Sturtevant, "A Hittite Chrestomathy", University of Pennsylvania, 1935
^Paulus, Susanne, "Fraud, Forgery, and Fiction: Is There Still Hope for Agum-Kakrime?", Journal of Cuneiform Studies 70.1, pp. 115-166, 2018
^Seymour 2006, pp. 88–89: "Preventing uprisings on the fringes of the empire was a major concern for Assyrian kings, and a number of policies developed to meet this need, among them mass deportations. When new territory was conquered or a rebellious vassal crushed, an increased imperial presence in the trouble spot was often complemented by the removal of large numbers of the indigenous population to the imperial core, effectively breaking up the rebellious population and reducing the potential for future resistance. This practice was effective, and continued throughout the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires until 539 BC and Cyrus's conquest of Babylon. The majority of the immigrant population were not slaves (Yamauchi 2002: 365), and some did rise to high status positions at the core of the empire (a possibility reflected in the career of the biblical Daniel, who rises to the status of trusted royal confidant)."
^Nissen, Hans J. and Heine, Peter, "Alexander and the Seleucids in Babylonia (331–141 BCE)", From Mesopotamia to Iraq: A Concise History, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 114-119, 2009
^Liverani 2016, pp. 21–22. "In practice, the solution adopted to visualize cities which were in fact unknown was a mixture of classical (Greek) and Egyptian elements, with long colonnades, even built on more than one level—which will then prove totally foreign to the unfired brick architecture of Mesopotamian cities—and with plenty of obelisks and the odd sphinx. To this mixture is added, often and willingly, something of Ottoman architecture, showing cupolas and minarets, clearly useful in picturing an unchangeable Near East which therefore needed to retain elements of remote antiquity in a modern age."
Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva, Margarete van Ess, & Joachim Marzahn, eds. (2011).Babylon: Wissenskultur in Orient und Okzident. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter.ISBN978-3-11-022212-8.
Finkel, I. L. and M. J. Seymour, eds.Babylon. Oxford University Press, 2009.ISBN0-19-538540-3 . Exhibition organized by British Museum, Musée du Louvre & Réunion des Musées Nationaux, and Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.
Liverani, Mario.Imagining Babylon: The Modern Story of an Ancient City. Translated from Italian to English by Ailsa Campbell. Boston: De Gruyter, 2016.ISBN978-1-61451-602-6. Originally published asImmaginare Babele in 2013.
Abdul-Razzak, Wahbi, "Ishtar gate and its inner wall" Sumer 35, pp. 112–117, 1979 (in Arabic)
Ali, Shah Mohammed, "The Southern Palace", Sumer 35, pp. 82–93, 1979 (in Arabic)
[23] Al-Assadi, Hind A., and Najah A. Abd, "Application of Georadar Method to Investigate Shallow Artifacts for Al-Maabid Area in Babylon Archaeological City", The Iraqi Geological Journal, pp. 288–295, 2024
Al-Kassar, Awwad Abdul-Kareem, "Views and conclusions about the excavations of the northern part of the procession street for the year 1981" Sumer 41, Arabic section, pp. 137–138, 1985 (in Arabic)
Alwan, Kamil Shihab, "The Vaulted Structures or the so-called Hanging Gardens", Sumer 35, pp. 127–136, 1979 (in Arabic)
Dalley, Stephanie (2021).The City of Babylon: A History c. 2000 BC – AD 116. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-316-50177-1.
Kamil, Ahmed Mohammed, "The inner wall of Babylon", Sumer 35, pp. 137–149, 1979 (in Arabic)
[24] Koldewey, Robert, "Pflastersteine Von Aiburschabu In Babylon", J. C. Hinrichs'sch Buchhandlung, 1901
Maul, Stefan (1997)."The Ancient Middle Eastern Capital City – Reflection and Navel of the World".Stanford Presidential Lectures and Symposia in the Humanities and Arts. – originally published in German"Die altorientalische Hauptstadt – Abbild und Nabel der Wel".Die Orientalische Stadt: Kontinuitat. Wandel. Bruch. 1 Internationale Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft. 9–10. Mai 1996 in Halle/Saale. Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag:109–124. 1997.
[25] Maurice, Thomas, "Observations on the ruins of Babylon, as recently visited and described by Claudius James Rich, Esq. resident for the East India Company at Bagdad; with illustrative engravings", London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, 1816
Mommsen, Theodor; Dickson, William Purdie; Haverfield, Francis (2004).The provinces of the Roman Empire: from Caesar to Diocletian, Vol. II. Gorgias Press LLC.ISBN978-1-59333-026-2.
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