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| Kamula–Elevala | |
|---|---|
| Kamula–Elevala River | |
| Geographic distribution | northernWestern Province, Papua New Guinea |
| Linguistic classification | Trans–New Guinea |
| Proto-language | Proto-Kamula–Elevala |
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | kamu1264 |
 Map: The Awin–Pa–Kamula languages of New Guinea The Awin–Pa and Kamula languages Other Trans–New Guinea languages Other Papuan languages Austronesian languages Uninhabited | |
TheKamula–Elevala languages are a smallfamily of theTrans–New Guinea languages spoken in the region of theElevala River.
There are three languages, namelyAekyowm (Awin),Pare (Pa), andKamula. They are not obviously related to each other, but Aekyowm and Pare are closer to each other than to Kamula.[2]
A more in-depth classification by Suter and Usher (2017) is as follows.[2]
Stephen Wurm (1975) added Awin and Pa to an expandedCentral and South New Guinea branch of TNG, a position reversed by Ross (2005). The connection between Awin–Pa and Kamula was established by Suter & Usher.[3]
| Proto-Kamula–Elevala | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Kamula–Elevala languages |
Reconstructed ancestors | |
Usher (2020) reconstructs the consonant and vowel inventories as follows:[1]
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | *m | *n | |||
| Plosive | voiceless | *p(or *h) | *t | *k | |
| voiced | *b(or *p) | *d | *g | ||
| Fricative | *s | ||||
| Semivowel | *w | *j | |||
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | *i | *u | |
| Close-mid | *e | *o | |
| Open-mid | *ɔ | ||
| Open | *æ | *a |
There is also the diphthong *ai.
Usher (2020) reconstructs the Awin–Pa pronouns as:[1]
| sg | du | pl | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | *nɔ | *ni, *ki | |
| 2 | *go | *gi | |
| 3 | *jɔ |
In the 1du, Awin has /ki/ and Pare /ni/, /niki/, /nigi/. The Kamula singular forms are quite similar (na, wa, je), but it does not have the dual.
Some Proto-Kamula-Elevala lexical reconstructions by Usher (2020) are:[1]
| gloss | Proto-Kamula-Elevala |
|---|---|
| head | *ke̝ba |
| ear | *m[ɔ/o̝]d[ɔ/o̝] |
| eye | *kinɔ |
| nose | *kine̝ |
| tusk/tooth | *bate̝ |
| tongue/flame | *taⁱ |
| knee/leg | *tama |
| bone | *ke̝dɔ |
| louse | *awV |
| dog | *ti |
| pig | *m₂aⁱnæ |
| bird | *te̝ja |
| egg/fruit/seed | *m[ɔ/o̝]k[ɔ/o̝] |
| tree | *je̝ |
| man | *k[ɔ/o̝]b[a/ɔ] |
| sun/day | *gani |
| stone | *ike̝ |
| name | *pi |
| eat/drink | *de̝- |
| one | *tV[n/d]o̝ |
Below are all of the lexical reconstructions of Proto-Kamula-Elevala from Suter and Usher (2017):[2]
| gloss | Proto-Kamula-Elevala |
|---|---|
| house | *aja |
| mushroom | *ap(ɔ,o) |
| hear | *dade- |
| where? | *dai |
| sago | *daja |
| eat, drink | *de- |
| burn, cook | *du- |
| middle | *dunu |
| brother | *ei |
| sun, day | *gani |
| belly, bowels | *gene |
| leech | *gimada |
| hold | *hamV- |
| upright | *hane |
| name | *hi |
| light (in weight) | *hodoka |
| stand, stay | *hV- |
| sago thatch | *jeme |
| hit | *jV- |
| bone | *kedɔ |
| man | *kopo |
| now, today | *kwa- |
| thigh | *madina |
| shoulder | *makæ |
| know | *maN(æ,a)- |
| teeth, mouth | *mat(e,i) |
| kindle | *mi- |
| son, child | *mi |
| body | *mot(e,i) |
| joint | *mu |
| tusk | *patæ |
| skin disease | *peseni |
| die | *po- |
| tie, wrap | *podi |
| pierce, burst | *poko- |
| heart, pity | *pɔdɔw(e,a) |
| be soft | *pɔpɔtæ- |
| close eyes | *pudi- |
| sit | *pV- |
| speech | *sa |
| rafter | *saka |
| paddle | *sode |
| tongue | *tai |
| afternoon | *tamide |
| make, do | *ti- |
| embers | *tine |
| bow (for arrows) | *tɔ |
| upstream | *t(ɔ,o)t(ɔ,o) |
| thorn | *tu |
| banana | *tuma |
| go | *tV- |
| one | *tVdo |
| illicit | *u |
| scar | *ud(e,i) |
| urine | *ute |
| grub | *wæja |
| left (hand) | *weke |
Proto-Elevala reconstructions from Suter and Usher (2017):[2]
| gloss | Proto-Elevala |
|---|---|
| hand, arm | *a |
| lie down | *æ- |
| sand | *daNi |
| give | *dæ- |
| flea | *dideme |
| meat | *dinæ |
| testicles | *dipɔ |
| crocodile | *dope |
| sap, juice | *dɔdæ |
| fingernail | *d(ɔ,a)kæ |
| see | *dV- |
| sugarcane | *ga |
| beak | *ga |
| sing | *gi- |
| gums | *gine |
| younger brother | *gɔmɔde |
| cut | *gu |
| stick | *gum(ɔ,a) |
| count | *hiakV- |
| breath | *hine |
| do, make | *hɔmV- |
| carry on head | *i- |
| stone | *ike |
| song | *jɔkæ |
| set on fire | *kamV- |
| leg | *kate |
| beetle | *kiame |
| thunder | *kima(ti) |
| nose | *kine |
| face | *kiNɔ-namæ58 |
| white | *kɔnV-kaina59 |
| coconut | *kɔpɔkæ |
| pig | *mainæ |
| head | *mini |
| below | *moka |
| fish | *mone |
| stem | *moNæ |
| what? | *na |
| cane mail shirt | *napo |
| charcoal | *o |
| drum | *pi |
| heavy | *piena |
| buttocks | *po |
| smell | *pɔmæ |
| bride price | *puNe |
| goanna | *sɔNɔmæ |
| yesterday | *te |
| sago thatch | *temæ |
| rattan | *tike |
| ground, earth | *tɔ |
| wild | *tɔna |
The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970),[4] Shaw (1973),[5] and Shaw (1986),[6] as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database.[7]
The words cited constitute translation equivalents, whether they are cognate (e.g.kɔ,kro for “bone”) or not (e.g.mɔgɔ,kɛndɔkɛ for “ear”). Notice the very low number of cognate pairs between the two languages.
| gloss | Pare | Aekyom |
|---|---|---|
| head | keba; kiba | pɔƀe |
| hair | osɛ; ouse | tɛnɛ |
| ear | mogamɛ; mogo; mɔgɔ | kɛndɔkɛ |
| eye | kere-mo; kinemo; kinemɔ | krO-ŋɛ |
| nose | kene; kine | koe |
| tooth | male; marɛ; pɛrɛ | pʰɛtɛ |
| tongue | tɛ | tiː |
| leg | tamakali | |
| louse | kiba ʔo; kiba ʔɔ; ɔ | huɔlɛ |
| dog | ti; til | psane |
| pig | mele | |
| bird | tie; tiye | |
| egg | moʔo; mɔʔɔ | |
| blood | sowo; sɔwɔ | |
| bone | ko; kɔ | kro |
| skin | sia; siga; siya | kare |
| breast | bu | tutɛ |
| tree | i̧; ĩ | de; doe |
| man | kobo | |
| woman | wigi | |
| sun | gẽnɛ̃; gine | toe |
| moon | abi | |
| water | mɔa; omɛ; ɔmɔɛ; ume | waɛ |
| fire | ne; nɛ | de; doe |
| stone | iebɔ; iyebo | |
| road, path | utigi | tɛnɛ |
| name | hi | hi |
| eat | da; denu; de-nu | də |
| one | oteso; ɔtesɔ | |
| two | diyabo; diyabɔ | |
| String Bag | dissa; disaɔ |
Proposed Awin–Pa reflexes ofproto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma:[8]
Loanwords between Kamula andDoso:[2]
| No. | Kamula | Doso | Turumsa |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 'father' | [a:] 'father' | [a:] 'father' |
| 2 | 'mother' | ['wai] 'mother' | ['wai] 'mother' |
| 3 | 'older brother' | ['bapa] 'older brother' | |
| 4 | 'older sister' | ['nana] 'older sister' | |
| 5 | 'blood' | ['omari] 'blood' | |
| 6 | 'stomach' | [kù'ko] 'belly (outside)' | |
| 7 | 'wallaby' | [ka'pia] 'wallaby' | [kapia] 'wallaby' |
| 8 | 'cassowary' | [wa:taɾa] 'cassowary' | [wa:taɾa] 'cassowary' |
| 9 | 'cloud' | ['waɾa] 'cloud' | |
| 10 | 'sand' | ['asiɾa] 'sand' |
Aekyom loanwords fromOk languages:[2]
| No. | Aekyom | Mountain Ok | Lowland Ok |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | [mon] 'rubbish' | *mɔːn 'rubbish, compost' | |
| 2 | [ɺoŋ] 'garden newly felled' | *ɾaŋg 'garden' | *joŋg 'garden' |
| 3 | [khno] 'canoe' | *kono 'canoe' | |
| 4 | [ambum(e)] 'turtle' | *ambɔːm 'turtle species' | *ambom 'turtle' |
| 5 | [khwiɺe] 'hornbill' | *kaweːɾ 'Papuan hornbill' | *kaweɾ 'hornbill' |
| 6 | [ubine] 'rhinoceros beetle' | *umiːn 'rhinoceros beetle' | |
| 7 | [mom] 'nephew, maternal' | *mɔːm 'mother's brother' | *mom 'mother's brother' |
| 8 | [ahwoe] 'grandmother' | *ap(e,o)ːk 'grandmother' | *apok 'grandmother' |
| 9 | [khendoke] 'outer ear' | *kindɔːŋg 'inner ear' | *kende 'ear' |
| 10 | [mgat-ɺam] 'in the mouth' | *maŋgat 'mouth, chin' | *maŋgot 'mouth' |
Kamula loanwords fromAramia River languages:[2]
| No. | Kamula | Waruna | Gogodala |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 'taro' | [bibi] 'taro' | [bibi] 'taro' |
| 2 | 'yam' | [waisa] 'yam' | |
| 3 | 'canoe' | [gwawa] 'canoe' | [gawa] 'canoe' |
| 4 | 'paddle, oar' | [keari] 'paddle' | [keari] 'paddle' |
| 5 | 'chicken' | [kakaba] 'fowl' | |
| 6 | 'breadfruit' | [kawaki] 'breadfruit' |
Potential cognates between Kamula–Elevala andAwyu–Dumut (Healey 1970[9]):[2]
| Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970) | Kamula–Elevala |
|---|---|
| pAD *dat- 'hear' | pKE *dade- 'hear' |
| pAD *do- 'be cooked' | pKE *du- 'burn, cook' |
| pAD *ɛdex- 'give' | pE *dæ- 'give' |
| pAD *füp 'name' | pKE *hi 'name' |
| pAD *göp 'you (sg.)' | pE *go 'you (sg.)' |
| pAD *ket 'flower' | Pa [ke] 'blossom' |
| pAD *mak 'shoulder' | pKE *makæ 'shoulder' |
| pAD *nop 'I' | pE *nɔ 'I' |
| pAD *or 'excreta, intestines' | Kamula /o/ 'abdomen, belly' |
| pAD *xaiban 'head' | Pa [keba] 'head' |
| pAD *xop 'male, man' | pKE *kopo 'man' |
| pAD *yin 'tree, wood, fire' | Pa [ẽ] 'tree' |
| pA *bu 'buttocks' | pE *po 'buttocks' |
| pA *dübe, *dübi 'island' | Aekyom [dupi] 'island' |
| pA *düb(-ro) 'heart' | Kamula 'heart' |
| pA *makan, *mokan 'low, beneath' | pE *moka 'below' |
| pA *midi(n) 'thigh' | pKE *madina 'thigh' |
| pA *wün 'liver' | Pa [wumɛ] 'liver' |
| pA *xui(-to) 'sky' | Aekyom [khwoe] 'sky, heaven' |
| pD *ba- 'sit' | pKE *pV- 'sit' |
| pD *kumöt 'thunder' | pE *kima(ti) 'thunder' |