Austronesian vessels are the traditional seafaring vessels of theAustronesian peoples ofTaiwan,Maritime Southeast Asia,Micronesia, coastalNew Guinea,Island Melanesia,Polynesia, andMadagascar.[2] They also include indigenous ethnic minorities inVietnam,Cambodia,Myanmar,Thailand,Hainan, theComoros, and theTorres Strait Islands.
They range from smalldugout canoes to largelashed-lug plank-built vessels. Their hull configurations includemonohulls as well ascatamarans andoutrigger boats (single-outrigger boats andtrimarans). Traditional sail types include a variety of distinctively Austronesiancrab-claw andtanja configurations, though modern vessels are typically motorized. These vessels allowed the migrations of the Austronesian peoples during theAustronesian expansion (starting at around 3000 to 1500 BC fromTaiwan andIsland Southeast Asia) throughout the islands of theIndo-Pacific, reaching as far asMadagascar,New Zealand, andEaster Island. They were also used to establish trading routes, including theAustronesian maritime trade network which formed the maritime leg of thespice trade and later, themaritime silk road.
Austronesians used distinctive sailing technologies, namely thecatamaran, theoutrigger ship,tanja sail and thecrab claw sail. This allowed them to colonize a large part of theIndo-Pacific region during theAustronesian expansion starting at around 3000 to 1500 BC, and ending with the colonization ofEaster Island andNew Zealand in the 10th to 13th centuries AD.[3][failed verification][4][failed verification] Prior to the 16th centuryColonial Era, Austronesians were the most widespread ethnolinguistic group, spanning half the planet from Easter Island in the easternPacific Ocean toMadagascar in the westernIndian Ocean.[5][6] They also established vast maritime trading networks, among which is theNeolithic precursor to what would become theMaritime Silk Road.[7]
The simplest form of all ancestral Austronesian boats had five parts. The bottom part consists of a single piece of hollowed-out log. At the sides were two planks, and two horseshoe-shaped wood pieces formed theprow andstern. These were fitted tightly together edge-to-edge bysewing or withdowels inserted into holes in between, and then lashed to each other with ropes (made fromrattan or fibre) wrapped around protruding lugs on the planks. This characteristic and ancient Austronesian boatbuilding practice is known as the "lashed-lug" technique. They were commonlycaulked with pastes made from various plants as well astapa bark and fibres which would expand when wet, further tightening joints and making the hull watertight. They formed the shell of the boat, which was then reinforced by horizontal ribs. Shipwrecks of Austronesian ships can be identified from this construction, as well as the absence of metal nails. Austronesian ships traditionally had no central rudders but were instead steered using an oar on one side.[8][9][10]
They also independently developed various sail types during theNeolithic, beginning with thecrab claw sail (more usually called the "oceaniclateen" or the "oceanicsprit") at around 1500 BCE. They are used throughout the range of theAustronesian Expansion, fromMaritime Southeast Asia, toMicronesia,Island Melanesia,Polynesia, andMadagascar. Crab claw sails are riggedfore-and-aft and can be tilted and rotated relative to the wind. They evolved from V-shaped perpendicularsquare sails in which the two spars converge at the base of the hull. The simplest form of the crab claw sail (also with the widest distribution) is composed of a triangular sail supported by two light spars (sometimes erroneously called "sprits") on each side. They were originally mastless, and the entire assembly was taken down when the sails were lowered.[11][failed verification]
Austronesian rigs were used for double-canoe (catamaran),single-outrigger (on the windward side), ordouble-outrigger boat configurations, in addition tomonohulls.[8][9]
There are several distinct types of crab claw rigs, but unlike western rigs, they do not have fixed conventional names.[12][failed verification] Crab claw sails are riggedfore-and-aft and can be tilted and rotated relative to the wind. They evolved from V-shaped perpendicularsquare sails in which the two spars converge at the base of the hull. The simplest form of the crab claw sail (also with the widest distribution) is composed of a triangular sail supported by two light spars (sometimes erroneously called "sprits") on each side. They were originally mastless, and the entire assembly was taken down when the sails were lowered.[11]
The need to propel larger and more heavily laden boats led to the increase in vertical sail. However this introduced more instability to the vessels. In addition to the unique invention ofoutriggers to solve this, the sails were also leaned backwards and the converging point moved further forward on the hull. This new configuration required a loose "prop" in the middle of the hull to hold the spars up, as well as rope supports on the windward side. This allowed more sail area (and thus more power) while keeping the center of effort low and thus making the boats more stable. The prop was later converted into fixed or removable canted masts where the spars of the sails were actually suspended by ahalyard from the masthead. This type of sail is most refined in Micronesianproas which could reach very high speeds. These configurations are sometimes known as the "crane sprit" or the "crane spritsail".[11][12]
Micronesian, Island Melanesian, and Polynesian single-outrigger vessels also used the canted mast configuration to uniquely developshunting.[11][12] In shunting vessels, both ends are alike, and the boat is sailed in either direction, but it has a fixed leeward side and a windward side. The boat is shunted frombeam reach to beam reach to change direction, with the wind over the side, a low-force procedure. The bottom corner of the crab claw sail is moved to the other end, which becomes the bow as the boat sets off back the way it came. The mast usually hinges, adjusting the rake or angle of the mast. The crab claw configuration used on these vessels is alow-stress rig, which can be built with simple tools and low-tech materials, but it is extremely fast. On a beam reach, it may be the fastest simple rig.
Another evolution of the basic crab claw sail is the conversion of the upper spar into a fixed mast. InPolynesia, this gave the sail more height while also making it narrower, giving it a shape reminiscent of crabpincers (hence "crab claw" sail). This was also usually accompanied by the lower spar becoming more curved.[11][12]
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The conversion of the prop to a fixed mast in the crab claw sail led to the much later invention of thetanja sail (also known variously and misleadingly as the canted square sail, canted rectangular sail, boomed lugsail, or balance lugsail). Tanja sails were rigged similarly to crab claw sails and also had spars on both the head and the foot of the sails; but they were square or rectangular with the spars not converging into a point.[11][12] They are generally mounted on one or two (rarely three or more) bipod or tripod masts, usually made from thickbamboo.[13][14][15] The masts have curved heads with grooves for attaching thehalyards. The lower part of two of the bamboo poles of the mast assembly have holes that are fitted unto the ends of a cross-wise length of timber on the deck, functioning like a hinge. The forward part of the mast assembly had a forelock. By unlocking it, the mast can be lowered across the ship.[13]
Despite the similarity of its appearance to western square rigs, the tanja is a fore-and-aft rig similar to alugsail. The sail was suspended from the upper spar ("yard"), while the lower spar functioned like a boom.[13] When set fore-and-aft, the spars extend forward of the mast by about a third of their lengths. When running before the wind, they are set perpendicular to the hull, similar to a square rig.[16] The sail can be rotated around the mast (lessening the need for steering with the rudders) and tilted to move the center of pull forward or aft. The sail can even be tilted completely horizontally, becoming wing-like, to lift the bow above incoming waves. The sail isreefed by rolling it around the lower spar.[13]
In addition to the tanja sails, ships with the tanja rigs also havebowsprits set with a quadrilateralheadsail, sometimes also canted as depicted in theBorobudur ships.[16] In the colonial era, these were replaced by triangular western-stylejibs (often several in later periods), and the tanja sails themselves were slowly replaced with western rigs likegaff rigs.[13]
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The following is an incomplete list of traditional Austronesian vessels.
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