Atlanta was originally founded as theterminus of a major state-sponsoredrailroad, but soon became the convergence point for several railroad lines, spurring its rapid growth. The largest of these was theWestern and Atlantic Railroad, from which the name "Atlanta" is derived, reflecting the city's growing reputation as a major transportation hub.[19] During theAmerican Civil War, the city served a strategically important role forthe Confederacy until it was captured in 1864. Atlanta was almost entirely burned to the ground duringGeneral William T. Sherman'sMarch to the Sea. However, it rebounded dramatically in the post-war period and quickly became a national industrial center and the unofficial capital of the "New South". AfterWorld War II, Atlanta emerged as a manufacturing and technology hub.[20] During the 1950s and 1960s, it became a major organizing center of theAmerican civil rights movement, withMartin Luther King Jr.,Ralph Abernathy, and many other locals serving as prominent leaders.[21] In the modern era, Atlanta has remained a major transportation center, withHartsfield-Jackson International Airport becoming theworld's busiest airport by passenger traffic in 1998. It has maintained this position every year since, except in 2020, with an estimated 93.7 million passengers in 2022.[22][23][24]
With anominal gross domestic product (GDP) of $473 billion in 2021, Atlanta has the 11th-largest economy among U.S. cities and the 22nd-largest in the world.[25] Its economy is diverse, with dominant sectors including transportation, aerospace, logistics, healthcare, news and media operations, film and television production, information technology, finance, and biomedical research and public policy. Atlanta established itself on the world stage when it won the bid to host the1996 Summer Olympics. The Games had a lasting impact on Atlanta's development into the 21st century, leading to significant investment in the city's universities, parks, and tourism industry.[26] Thegentrification of some of its neighborhoods has intensified in the 21st century with the growth of theAtlanta Beltline, altering Atlanta'sdemographics,politics,aesthetics, andculture.[27][28][29]
For thousands of years prior to the arrival of European settlers inNorth Georgia, the indigenousCreek people,Cherokee people, and their ancestors inhabited the area.[30]Standing Peachtree, a Creek village wherePeachtree Creek flows into theChattahoochee River, was the closest Native American settlement to what is now Atlanta.[31] Through the early 19th century, European Americans systematically encroached on the Creek of northern Georgia, forcing them out of the area from 1802 to 1825.[32] The Creek were forced to leave the area in 1821, underIndian Removal by the federal government, and European American settlers arrived the following year.[33]
Western and Atlantic Railroad
In 1836, theGeorgia General Assembly voted to build theWestern and Atlantic Railroad in order to provide a link between the port ofSavannah and theMidwest.[34] The initial route was to run southward fromChattanooga to a terminus east of theChattahoochee River, which would be linked to Savannah. After engineers surveyed various possible locations for the terminus, the "zero milepost" was driven into the ground in what is now Foundry Street,Five Points. When asked in 1837 about the future of the little village,Stephen Harriman Long, the railroad's chief engineer said the place would be good "for one tavern, a blacksmith shop, a grocery store, and nothing else".[35] A year later, the area around the milepost had developed into a settlement, first known asTerminus, and laterThrasherville, after a local merchant who built homes and ageneral store in the area.[36] By 1842, the town had six buildings and 30 residents and was renamedMarthasville to honor GovernorWilson Lumpkin's daughter Martha. Later,John Edgar Thomson, Chief Engineer of theGeorgia Railroad, suggested the town be renamedAtlanta, supposedly a feminine version of the word "Atlantic", referring to the Western and Atlantic Railroad.[19] (Atalanta was also Martha Lumpkin's middle name.) The residents approved, and the town was incorporated as Atlanta on December 29, 1847.[37]
By 1860, Atlanta's population had grown to 9,554.[38][39] During theAmerican Civil War, the nexus of multiple railroads in Atlanta made the city a strategic hub for the distribution of military supplies.[40]
In 1864, theUnion Army moved southward following the capture of Chattanooga and began itsinvasion of north Georgia. The region surrounding Atlanta was the location of several major army battles, culminating with theBattle of Atlanta and a four-month-long siege of the city by the Union Army under the command of GeneralWilliam Tecumseh Sherman. On September 1, 1864,Confederate GeneralJohn Bell Hood decided to retreat from Atlanta, and he ordered the destruction of all public buildings and possible assets that could be of use to the Union Army. On the next day, MayorJames Calhoun surrendered Atlanta to the Union Army, and on September 7, Sherman ordered the city's civilian population to evacuate. On November 11, 1864, Sherman prepared for the Union Army'sMarch to the Sea by ordering the destruction of Atlanta's remaining military assets.[41]
Reconstruction and late 19th century
Marietta Street, 1864
After the Civil War ended in 1865, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt during theReconstruction era. The work attracted many new residents. Due to the city's superiorrail transportation network, thestate capital was moved fromMilledgeville to Atlanta in 1868.[42] In the 1880 Census, Atlanta had surpassed Savannah as Georgia's largest city.[43]
In 1907, Peachtree Street, the main street of Atlanta, was busy with streetcars and automobiles.
During the first decades of the 20th century, Atlanta enjoyed a period of unprecedented growth. In three decades' time, Atlanta's population tripled as the city limits expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs. The city's skyline grew taller with the construction of theEquitable,Flatiron,Empire, andCandler buildings.Sweet Auburn emerged as a center of Black commerce. The period was also marked by strife and tragedy. Increased racial tensions led to theAtlanta Race Riot of 1906, when Whites attacked Blacks, leaving at least 27 people dead and over 70 injured, with extensive damage in Black neighborhoods. In 1913,Leo Frank, a Jewish-American factory superintendent, was convicted of the murder of a 13-year-old girl in a highly publicized trial. He was sentenced to death, but the governor commuted his sentence to life. An enraged and organizedlynch mob took him from jail in 1915 and hanged him inMarietta. The Jewish community in Atlanta and across the country were horrified.[45][46] On May 21, 1917, theGreat Atlanta Fire destroyed 1,938 buildings in what is now theOld Fourth Ward, resulting in one fatality and the displacement of 10,000 people.[19]
Atlanta played a vital role in the Allied effort duringWorld War II. ColonelBlake Van Leer, the president of Georgia Tech, played a significant part by lobbying war-related manufacturing companies like Lockheed Martin to move to Atlanta, successfully lobbying the Government to build military bases, in turn helping attract thousands of new residents through new jobs. Van Leer also launched major research centers, which includedNeely Nuclear Research Center and funds to help make Georgia Tech the "MIT" of the south while also foundingSouthern Polytechnic State University.[48][49][50]
These new defense industries attracted thousands of new residents and generated revenues, resulting in rapid population and economic growth. In the 1950s, the city's newly constructed highway system, supported by federal subsidies, allowed middle class Atlantans the ability to relocate to the suburbs. As a result, the city began to make up an ever-smaller proportion of the metropolitan area's population.[19]
African-American veterans returned from World War II seeking full rights in their country and began heightened activism. In exchange for support by that portion of the Black community that could vote, in 1948 the mayor ordered the hiring of the first eight African-American police officers in the city.[51]
Much controversy preceded the1956 Sugar Bowl, when thePitt Panthers, with African-American fullbackBobby Grier on the roster, met theGeorgia Tech Yellow Jackets.[52] There had been controversy over whether Grier should be allowed to play due to his race, and whether Georgia Tech should even play at all due to Georgia'sGovernorMarvin Griffin's opposition to racial integration.[53][54][55] After Griffin publicly sent a telegram to the state's Board of Regents requesting Georgia Tech not to engage in racially integrated events, Georgia Tech's presidentBlake R. Van Leer rejected the request and threatened to resign. Later, students from both Georgia Tech and the University of Georgia held a protest against Griffin's stance, which soon turned into a riot. The students broke windows, upturned parking meters, hung Griffin in effigy, and marched all the way to the governor's mansion, surrounding it until 3:30 a.m. Griffin publicly blamed Georgia Tech's president for the "riots" and requested he be replaced and Georgia Tech's state funding be cut off. On December 5 the Georgia Tech board of regents voted 13–1 in favor of allowing the game to proceed as scheduled.[56]
In the 1960s, Atlanta became a major organizing center of thecivil rights movement, withMartin Luther King Jr.,Ralph Abernathy, and students from Atlanta'shistorically black colleges and universities playing major roles in the movement's leadership. While Atlanta in the postwar years had relatively minimal racial strife compared to other cities, Blacks were limited by discrimination, segregation, and continueddisenfranchisement of most voters.[57] In 1961, the city attempted to thwartblockbusting by realtors by erecting road barriers inCascade Heights, countering the efforts of civic and business leaders to foster Atlanta as the "city too busy to hate."[57][58]
Desegregation of the public sphere came in stages, with public transportation desegregated by 1959,[59] the restaurant atRich's department store by 1961,[60] movie theaters by 1963,[61] and public schools by 1973 (nearly 20 years after the US Supreme Court ruled that segregated public schools were unconstitutional).[62]
In 1960, Whites comprised 61.7% of the city's population.[63] During the 1950s–70s, suburbanization andWhite flight from urban areas led to a significant demographic shift.[57] By 1970, African Americans were the majority of the city's population and exercised their recently enforced voting rights and political influence by electing Atlanta's first Black mayor,Maynard Jackson, in 1973. Under Mayor Jackson's tenure, Atlanta's airport was modernized, strengthening the city's role as a transportation center. The opening of theGeorgia World Congress Center in 1976 further confirmed Atlanta's rise as a convention city.[64] Construction of the city'ssubway system began in 1975, with rail service commencing in 1979.[65] Despite these improvements, Atlanta lost more than 100,000 residents between 1970 and 1990, over 20% of its population.[66] At the same time, it developed new office space after attracting numerous corporations, with an increasing portion of workers from northern areas.[67]
1996 Summer Olympic games
The Olympic flag waves at the 1996 Summer Olympic games.
Atlanta was selected as the site for the1996 Summer Olympic Games. Following theannouncement, the city government undertook several major construction projects to improve Atlanta's parks, sporting venues, and transportation infrastructure; however, for the first time, none of the $1.7 billion cost of the games was governmentally funded. While the games experienced transportation and accommodation problems and theCentennial Olympic Park bombing occurred despite extra security precautions,[68] the spectacle was still a watershed event in Atlanta's history. According to former MayorKasim Reed, the Olympic Games generated "a direct economic impact of at least USD 5 billion".[69][70] For the first time in Olympic history, every one of the record 197 national Olympic committees invited to compete sent athletes, sending more than 10,000 contestants participating in a record 271 events. The related projects such asAtlanta's Olympic Legacy Program and civic effort initiated a fundamental transformation of the city in the following decade.[66]
21st century
Midtown has been a major growing center of the city since the turn of the 21st century.
During the 2000s, the city of Atlanta underwent a profound physical,cultural, anddemographic change. As some of the African-American middle and upper classes also began to move to the suburbs, a booming economy drew numerous new migrants from other cities in the United States, who contributed to changes in the city's demographics. African Americans made up a decreasing portion of the population, from a high of 67% in 1990 to 54% in 2010.[71] From 2000 to 2010, Atlanta gained 22,763 white residents, 5,142 Asian residents, and 3,095 Hispanic residents, while the city's Black population decreased by 31,678.[72][73] Much of the city's demographic change during the decade was driven by young, college-educated professionals: from 2000 to 2009, thethree-mile radius surroundingDowntown Atlanta gained 9,722 residents aged 25 to 34 and holding at least a four-year degree, an increase of 61%.[74] This was similar to the tendency in other cities for young, college educated, single or married couples to live in downtown areas.[75]
In the lead-up to the1996 Summer Olympics, theAtlanta Housing Authority demolished nearly all of its public housing.[76][77][78] Residents instead received vouchers to pay for private housing; a wave of mixed housing was built using funding from theHOPE VI program under CEO Renee Lewis Glover (1994–2013).[79]
In 2005, the city approved the $2.8 billionBeltLine project. It was intended to convert a disused 22-mile freight railroad loop that surrounds the central city into an art-filled multi-use trail and light rail transit line, which would increase the city's park space by 40%.[80] The project stimulated retail and residential development along the loop, but has been criticized for its adverse effects on some Black communities.[81] In 2013, the project received a federal grant of $18 million to develop the southwest corridor. In September 2019, the James M. Cox Foundation gave $6 million to the PATH Foundation which will connect theSilver Comet Trail to The Atlanta BeltLine, which was expected to be completed by 2022. Upon completion, the total combined interconnected trail distance around Atlanta for the Atlanta BeltLine and Silver Comet Trail will be the longest paved trail surface in the U.S., totaling about 300 miles (480 km).[80]
Atlanta and its surrounding suburbs, from Sentinel-2A satellite, 2022
Atlanta encompasses 134.0 square miles (347.1 km2), of which 133.2 square miles (344.9 km2) is land and 0.85 square miles (2.2 km2) is water.[88] The city is situated in theDeep South of thesoutheastern United States among the foothills of theAppalachian Mountains. At 1,050 feet (320 m) above mean sea level, Atlanta has the highest elevation among major cities east of theMississippi River.[89] Atlanta straddles theEastern Continental Divide. Rainwater that falls on the south and east side of the divide flows into the Atlantic Ocean, while rainwater on the north and west side of the divide flows into theGulf of Mexico.[90] Atlanta developed on aridge south of theChattahoochee River, which is part of theACF River Basin. The river borders the far northwestern edge of the city, and much of its natural habitat has been preserved, in part by theChattahoochee River National Recreation Area.[91]
Despite having lost significant tree canopy coverage between 1973 and 1999, Atlanta now has thedensest urban tree coverage of any major city in the United States and is often called "City of Trees" or "The City in a Forest".[18][96][97][98]
Atlanta is divided into 242 officially definedneighborhoods.[99] The city contains three major high-rise districts, which form a north–south axis alongPeachtree:Downtown,Midtown, andBuckhead.[100] Surrounding these high-density districts are leafy, low-density neighborhoods, most of which are dominated by single-family homes.[101]
Downtown contains the most office space in the metro area, much of it occupied by government entities. Downtown is home to the city's sporting venues and many of its tourist attractions.[102]Midtown is the city's second-largest business district, containing the offices of many of the region's law firms. Midtown is known for its art institutions, cultural attractions, institutions of higher education, and dense form.[103][104][105][106][107]Buckhead, the city's uptown district, is eight miles (13 km) north of Downtown and the city's third-largest business district. The district is marked by an urbanized core alongPeachtree Road, surrounded by suburban single-family neighborhoods situated among woods and rolling hills.[108][109][110][111]
Surrounding Atlanta's three high-rise districts are the city's low- and medium-densityneighborhoods,[108] where thecraftsmanbungalow single-family home is dominant.[112] Theeastside is marked by historicstreetcar suburbs, built from the 1890s to the 1930s as havens for the upper middle class. These neighborhoods, many of which contain their own villages encircled by shaded, architecturally distinct residential streets, include theVictorianInman Park,BohemianEast Atlanta, and eclecticOld Fourth Ward.[113][114] On thewestside and along theBeltLine on theeastside, former warehouses and factories have been converted into housing, retail space, and art galleries, transforming the once-industrial areas such asWest Midtown into model neighborhoods forsmart growth, historic rehabilitation, and infill construction.[115]
In southwest Atlanta, neighborhoods closer to downtown originated as streetcar suburbs, including the historicWest End, while those farther from downtown retain a postwar suburban layout. These includeCollier Heights andCascade Heights, historically home to most of the city'supper middle-class African-American population.[116][117][118] Northwest Atlanta contains the areas of the city to west of Marietta Boulevard and to the north of Martin Luther King Jr. Drive, including those neighborhoods remote to downtown, such as Riverside, Bolton and Whittier Mill. The latter is one of Atlanta's designated Landmark Historical Neighborhoods. Vine City, though technically Northwest, adjoins the city's Downtown area and has recently been the target of community outreach programs and economic development initiatives.[119]
Gentrification of the city's neighborhoods is one of the more controversial and transformative forces shaping contemporary Atlanta. Thegentrification of Atlanta has its origins in the 1970s, after many of Atlanta's neighborhoods had declined and suffered the urban decay that affected other major American cities in the mid-20th century. When neighborhood opposition successfully prevented twofreeways from being built through the city's east side in 1975, the area became the starting point for Atlanta'sgentrification. After Atlanta was awarded the Olympic games in 1990, gentrification expanded into other parts of the city, stimulated by infrastructure improvements undertaken in preparation for the games. New development post-2000 has been aided by theAtlanta Housing Authority's eradication of the city's public housing. As noted above, it allowed development of these sites for mixed-income housing, requiring developers to reserve a considerable portion for affordable housing units. It has also provided for other former residents to be given vouchers to gain housing in other areas.[120] Construction of the Beltline has stimulated new and related development along its path.[121]
Most of Atlanta was burned in the final months of the American Civil War, depleting the city of a large stock of its historic architecture. Yet architecturally, the city had never been traditionally "southern": Atlanta originated as a railroad town rather than a southern seaport dominated by the planter class, such asSavannah orCharleston. Because of its later development, many of the city's landmarks share architectural characteristics with buildings in the Northeast or Midwest, as they were designed at a time of shared national architectural styles.[113]
The skyline of Midtown (viewed fromPiedmont Park) emerged with the construction of modernistColony Square in 1972.
During the late 20th century, Atlanta embraced the global trend ofmodern architecture, especially for commercial and institutional structures. Examples include theState of Georgia Building built in 1966, and theGeorgia-Pacific Tower in 1982. Many of the most notable examples from this period were designed by world renowned Atlanta architectJohn Portman. Most of the buildings that define the downtown skyline were designed by Portman during this period, including theWestin Peachtree Plaza and theAtlanta Marriott Marquis. In the latter half of the 1980s, Atlanta became one of the early homes of postmodern buildings that reintroduced classical elements to their designs. Many of Atlanta's tallest skyscrapers were built in this period and style, displaying tapering spires or otherwise ornamented crowns, such asOne Atlantic Center (1987),191 Peachtree Tower (1991), and theFour Seasons Hotel Atlanta (1992). Also completed during the era was theBank of America Plaza built-in 1992. At 1,023 feet (312 m), it is the tallest building in the city and the 14th-tallest in the United States.[122]
The city's embrace of modern architecture has often translated into an ambivalent approach toward historic preservation, leading to the destruction of many notable architectural landmarks. These include theEquitable Building (1892–1971),Terminal Station (1905–1972), and theCarnegie Library (1902–1977).[123] In the mid-1970s, theFox Theatre, now a cultural icon of the city, would have met the same fate if not for a grassroots effort to save it.[113] More recently, preservationists may have made some inroads. For example, in 2016 activists convinced the Atlanta City Council not to demolish the Atlanta-Fulton Central Library, the last building designed by noted architectMarcel Breuer.[124]
Under theKöppen classification, Atlanta has ahumid subtropical climate (Cfa)[125] with generous precipitation year-round, typical for theUpland South. The city is situated inUSDA Plant Hardiness Zone 8a, with the northern and western suburbs, as well as part of Midtown transitioning to 7b.[126] Summers are hot and humid, with temperatures somewhat moderated by the city's elevation. Winters are overall mild but variable, occasionally susceptible tosnowstorms even if in small quantities on several occasions, unlike the central and southern portions of the state.[127][128] Warm air from theGulf of Mexico can bring spring-like highs while strong Arctic air masses can push lows into the teens °F (−7 to −12 °C).
July averages 80.9 °F (27.2 °C), with high temperatures reaching 90 °F (32 °C) on an average of 47 days per year, though 100 °F (38 °C) readings are not seen most years.[129] January averages 44.8 °F (7.1 °C), with temperatures in the suburbs slightly cooler due largely to theurban heat island effect. Lows at or below freezing can be expected 36 nights annually,[130] but the last occurrences of temperatures below 10 °F (−12 °C) wereDecember 24, 2022,[130] andJanuary 2014, eight years apart. Extremes range from −9 °F (−23 °C) onFebruary 13, 1899 to 106 °F (41 °C) onJune 30, 2012.[130] Average dewpoints in the summer range from 63.7 °F (17.6 °C) in June to 67.8 °F (19.9 °C) in July.[131]
Typical of the southeastern U.S., Atlanta receives abundant rainfall that is evenly distributed throughout the year, though late spring and early fall are somewhat drier. The average annual precipitation is 50.43 in (1,281 mm), while snowfall is typically light and rare with a normal of 2.2 inches (5.6 cm) per winter.[130] The heaviest single snowfall occurred on January 23, 1940, with around 10 inches (25 cm) of snow.[132] However,ice storms usually cause more problems than snowfall does, the most severe occurring on January 7, 1973.[133] Tornadoes are rare in the city itself, but theMarch 14, 2008, EF2 tornado damaged prominent structures in downtown Atlanta.[134]
The2020 United States census reported that Atlanta had a population of 498,715. Thepopulation density was 3,685.45 persons persquare mile (1,422.95/km2). The racial and ethnic makeup of Atlanta (including Hispanics) was 51.0% Black or African American, 40.9% non-Hispanic white, 4.2% Asian and 0.3% Native American, and 1.0% from other races. 2.4% of the population reportedtwo or more races.[156] Hispanics and Latinos of any race made up 6.0% of the city's population.[157] The median income for a household in the city was $77,655 in 2022.[158] The per capita income for the city was $60,778 in 2022.[158] Approximately 17.7% percent of the population was living below thepoverty line in 2022.[158] Circa 2024, of the Atlanta residents, 391,711 of them lived in Fulton County and 28,292 of them lived in DeKalb County.[159]
Map of racial distribution in Atlanta, 2010 U.S. census. Each dot is 25 people:⬤ White⬤ Black⬤ Asian⬤ Hispanic⬤ Other
In the 1920s, the Black population began to grow in Southern metropolitan cities like Atlanta,Birmingham,Houston, andMemphis.[160] Since the 1970s, Atlanta has been widely recognized as a hub of African American political activism, education, entrepreneurship, and culture—earning it the reputation of being aBlack mecca.[161][162][163] However, in the 1990s, Atlanta started to experienceBlack flight.[164][165] African Americans have moved outside the city seeking a lower cost of living or better public schools. The African American share of Atlanta's population has declined faster than any racial group.[166] The city's share of Black residents shrank from 67% in 1990 to 47% in 2020. Blacks made up nine percent of new Atlanta residents between 2010 and 2020.[166][71][72] At the same time, Atlanta is home to a sizable foreign-born Black population,[167] notably fromEritrea,Ethiopia,Ghana,Somalia,Liberia, andNigeria.[168]
With many notable investments occurring in Atlanta initiated by the1996 Summer Olympics, the non-Hispanic White population of Atlanta began to rebound after several decades ofWhite flight to Atlanta's suburbs.[169][170] Between 2000 and 2020, the proportion of Whites in the city had strong growth. In two decades, Atlanta's White population grew from 33% to 39% of the city's population. Whites made up the majority of new Atlanta residents between 2010 and 2020.[166][171]
The Hispanic and Latino populations of metro Atlanta have grown significantly in recent years.[172] The largest Hispanic ancestries in Atlanta areMexican,Puerto Rican andCuban.[173] There is a growing population of Mexican ancestry throughout the region, with notable concentrations along the Buford Highway and I-85 corridor, and now extending into Gwinnett County.[174] In 2013, Metro Atlanta had the 19th largest Hispanic population in the United States.[175]
The Atlanta area also has a fast growing Asian American population. The largest groups of Asian origin are those of Indian, Vietnamese, Chinese, Korean, Filipino, Pakistani and Japanese descent.[176] Pew Research Center ranks the Atlanta area among thetop 10 U.S. metropolitan areas by Indian population in 2019.[177]
Early immigrants in the Atlanta area were mostlyJews andGreeks. Since 2010, the Atlanta area has experienced notable immigration from India, China, South Korea, and Jamaica.[178][179] Other notable source countries of immigrants are Vietnam, Eritrea, Nigeria, the Arabian gulf, Ukraine and Poland.[180] Within a few decades, and in keeping with national trends, immigrants from England, Ireland, and German-speaking central Europe were no longer the majority of Atlanta's foreign-born population. The city's Italians included immigrants from northern Italy, many of whom had been in Atlanta since the 1890s; more recent arrivals from southern Italy; and Sephardic Jews from the Isle of Rhodes, which Italy had seized from Turkey in 1912.[181] Europeans fromGreat Britain,Ireland andGermany settled in the city as early as the 1840s.[182] Most of Atlanta's European population are from the United Kingdom and Germany. Bosnian refugees settled in Atlanta.[183]
Vietnamese people, Cambodians, Ethiopians and Eritreans were the earliest refugees formally brought to the city.[184]
Of the total population five years and older, 83.3% spoke only English at home, while 8.8% spoke Spanish, 3.9% another Indo-European language, and 2.8% an Asian language.[185] Among them, 7.3% of Atlantans were born abroad (86th in the US).[157][186] Atlanta's dialect has traditionally been a variation ofSouthern American English. TheChattahoochee River long formed a border between theCoastal Southern andSouthern Appalachian dialects.[187] Because of the development of corporate headquarters in the region, attracting migrants from other areas of the country, by 2003,Atlanta magazine concluded that Atlanta had become significantly "de-Southernized". A Southern accent was considered a handicap in some circumstances.[188] In general, Southern accents are less prevalent among residents of the city and inner suburbs and among younger people; they are more common in the outer suburbs and among older people.[187] At the same time, some residents of the city speak in Southern variations ofAfrican-American English.[189]
Atlanta has a thriving and diverselesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community. According to a survey by theWilliams Institute, Atlanta ranked third among major American cities, behindSan Francisco and slightly behindSeattle, with 12.8% of the city's total population identifying as LGB.[190] TheMidtown andCheshire Bridge areas have historically been the epicenters ofLGBT culture in Atlanta.[191] Atlanta formed a reputation for being a place inclusive to LGBT people after former mayorIvan Allen Jr. dubbed it "the city too busy to hate" in the 1960s (referring to racial relations).[192][193][194][195] Atlanta has consistently scored 100% on theHuman Rights Campaign's Municipal Equality Index that measures how inclusive a city's laws, policies and services are for LGBT people who live or work there.[196]
Religion in Atlanta, while historically centered onProtestant Christianity, now encompasses many faiths, as a result of the city and metro area's increasingly international population. Some 63% of residents identified as some type of Protestant according to thePew Research Center in 2014,[197][198] but in recent decades theRoman Catholic Church has increased in numbers and influence because of new migrants to the region. Metro Atlanta also has numerous ethnic or national Christian congregations, including Korean and Indian churches. Per thePublic Religion Research Institute in 2020, overall, 73% of the population identify with some tradition ordenomination of Christianity;[199] despite continuing religious diversification,historically African-American Protestant churches continue prevalence in the whole metropolitan area alongside historicBlack Catholic churches. The larger non-Christian faiths according to both studies areJudaism,Islam, andHinduism. Overall, there are over 1,000 places of worship within Atlanta.[200]
Atlanta was born as a railroad town, andlogistics continue to represent an important part of the city's economy to this day. In 2021, major freight railroadNorfolk Southern moved their headquarters to Atlanta,[222] and the city hosts majorclassification yards for Norfolk Southern andCSX.Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport is theworld's busiest airport,[223] and the headquarters ofDelta Air Lines. Delta operates the world's largest airline hub at Hartsfield-Jackson and is metro Atlanta's largest employer.[224]UPS, the world's largest courier company, operates an air cargo hub at Hartsfield-Jackson, and has their headquarters in neighboringSandy Springs.
Information technology (IT) has become an increasingly important part of Atlanta's economic output, earning the city the nickname the "Silicon peach". As of 2013[update], Atlanta contains the fourth-largest concentration of IT jobs in the US, numbering 85,000+. The city is also ranked as the sixth fastest-growing for IT jobs, with an employment growth of 4.8% in 2012 and a three-year growth near 9%, or 16,000 jobs. Companies are drawn to Atlanta's lower costs and educated workforce.[231][232][233][234]
Compared to other American cities, Atlanta's economy was disproportionately affected by theGreat Recession, with the city's economy being ranked 68th among 100 American cities in a September 2014 report due to an elevated unemployment rate, declining real income levels, and a depressed housing market.[239][240][241][242] From 2010 to 2011, Atlanta saw a 0.9% contraction in employment and plateauing income growth at 0.4%. Although unemployment had decreased to 7% by late 2014, this was still higher than the national unemployment rate of 5.8%.[243] Atlanta's housing market has also struggled, with home prices dropping by 2.1% in January 2012, reaching levels not seen since 1996. Compared with a year earlier, the average home price in Atlanta plummeted to 17.3% in February 2012, thus becoming the largest annual drop in the history of the index for any American or global city.[244][245] The decline in home prices prompted some economists to deem Atlanta the worst housing market in the nation at the height of the depression.[246] Nevertheless, the city's real estate market has resurged since 2012, so much median home value and rent growth significantly outpaced the national average by 2018, thanks to a rapidly-growing regional economy.[247][248][249]
Atlanta has drawn residents from many other parts of the U.S., in addition to many recentimmigrants to the U.S. who have made the metropolitan area their home, establishing Atlanta as the cultural and economic hub of an increasinglymulti-cultural metropolitan area.[250][251] This unique cultural combination reveals itself in the arts district of Midtown, the quirky neighborhoods on the city'seastside, and the multi-ethnic enclaves found alongBuford Highway.[252]
As a national center for the arts,[258] Atlanta is home to significant art museums and institutions. The renownedHigh Museum of Art is arguably the South's leading art museum. TheMuseum of Design Atlanta (MODA) and the SCAD FASH Museum of Fashion + Film are the only such museums in the Southeast.[259][260] Contemporary art museums include theAtlanta Contemporary Art Center and theMuseum of Contemporary Art of Georgia. A recent arts addition is known as The Warehouse, a storage facility that was turned into a world-class art gallery featuring more than 400 works of art collected over more than 40 years, the collection open to the public for free.[261] Institutions of higher education contribute to Atlanta's art scene, with the Savannah College of Art and Design's Atlanta campus providing the city's arts community with a steady stream of curators. Emory University'sMichael C. Carlos Museum contains the largest collection of ancient art in the Southeast.[262] TheSpelman College Museum of Fine Art is the only museum in the nation to focus on art by women of theAfrican diaspora.[263] Georgia Tech'sRobert C. Williams Museum of Papermaking features the largest collection of paper and paper-related artifacts in the world.[264]
Atlanta has become one of the U.S.'s best cities forstreet art in recent years.[265] It is home toLiving Walls, an annual street art conference and the Outerspace Project, an annual event series that merges public art, live music, design, action sports, and culture. Examples ofstreet art in Atlanta can be found on the Atlanta Street Art Map.[266]
Atlanta has played a major or contributing role in the development of various genres of American music at different points in the city's history. Beginning as early as the 1920s, Atlanta emerged as a center forcountry music, which was brought to the city by migrants fromAppalachia.[267] During thecountercultural 1960s, Atlanta hosted theAtlanta International Pop Festival, with the 1969 festival taking place more than a month beforeWoodstock and featuring many of the same bands. The city was also a center forSouthern rock during its 1970s heyday: theAllman Brothers Band's hit instrumental "Hot 'Lanta" is an ode to the city, whileLynyrd Skynyrd's famous live rendition of "Free Bird" was recorded at theFox Theatre in 1976, with lead singerRonnie Van Zant directing the band to "play it pretty for Atlanta".[268] During the 1980s, Atlanta had an activepunk rock scene centered on two of the city's music venues,688 Club and the Metroplex, and Atlanta famously played host to theSex Pistols' first U.S. show, which was performed at the Great Southeastern Music Hall.[269] The 1990s saw the city produce major mainstream acts across many different musical genres. Country music artistTravis Tritt, and R&B sensationsXscape,TLC,Usher andToni Braxton, were just some of the musicians who call Atlanta home. The city also gave birth toAtlanta hip hop, a sub-genre that gained relevance and success with the introduction of the home-grown Atlantans known asOutkast, along with otherDungeon Family artists such asOrganized Noize andGoodie Mob; however, it was not until the 2000s that Atlanta moved "from the margins to becoming hip-hop's center of gravity with another sub-genre calledCrunk, part of a larger shift in hip-hop innovation to the South and East".[270][271][272][273] In the 2000s, Atlanta was recognized by the Brooklyn-basedVice magazine for itsindie rock scene, which revolves around the various live music venues found on the city's alternativeeastside.[274][275] To facilitate further local development, the state government provides qualified businesses and productions a 15% transferable income tax credit for in-state costs of music investments.[276]
Atlanta contains several outdoor attractions.[296] TheAtlanta Botanical Garden, adjacent to Piedmont Park, is home to the 600-foot-long (180 m)Kendeda Canopy Walk, askywalk that allows visitors to tour one of the city's last remainingurban forests from 40 feet (12 m) above the ground. The Canopy Walk is the only canopy-level pathway of its kind in the United States.[297]Zoo Atlanta, inGrant Park, accommodates over 1,300 animals representing more than 220 species. Home to the nation's largest collections of gorillas and orangutans, the zoo is one of only four zoos in the U.S. to housegiant pandas.[298] Festivals showcasing arts and crafts, film, and music, including theAtlanta Dogwood Festival, theAtlanta Film Festival, andMusic Midtown, respectively, are also popular with tourists.[299]
Tourists are drawn to the city's culinary scene,[300] which comprises a mix of urban establishments garnering national attention, ethnic restaurants serving cuisine from every corner of the world, and traditional eateries specializing in Southern dining. Since the turn of the 21st century, Atlanta has emerged as a sophisticated restaurant town.[301] Many restaurants opened in the city'sgentrifying neighborhoods have received praise at the national level, including Bocado, Bacchanalia, and Miller Union inWest Midtown, Empire State South inMidtown, and Two Urban Licks andRathbun's on theeast side.[82][302][303][304] In 2011,The New York Times characterized Empire State South and Miller Union as reflecting "a new kind of sophisticated Southern sensibility centered on the farm but experienced in the city".[305] Visitors seeking to sample international Atlanta are directed toBuford Highway, the city's international corridor, and suburbanGwinnett County. There, the nearly-millionimmigrants that make Atlanta home have established various authentic ethnic restaurants representing virtually every nationality on the globe.[306][307] For traditional Southern fare, one of the city's most famous establishments isThe Varsity, a long-lived fast food chain and the world's largest drive-in restaurant.[308]Mary Mac's Tea Room andPaschal's are more formal destinations for Southern food.[309][310]
Atlanta is best known for itsbarbecue,hamburgers,Southern fried chicken, andlemon pepper wings.[311][312] Buford Highway (immediately northeast of Atlanta) is home to many authentic ethnic cuisines such as Mexican and Asian foods.[313] Atlanta's culinary landscape is highlighted by its inclusion in the prestigiousMichelin Guide, featuring several restaurants recognized for their exceptional cuisine and premier dining destination in the Southeast.[314] Atlanta's rapidly expanding food scene is marked by a notable diversity, particularly with the increasing variety and number of Indian restaurants across the city and its metropolitan area,[315] including Chai Pani, aMichelin Guide restaurant.
The Braves moved to Atlanta in 1966. Originally established as theBoston Red Stockings in 1871, they are the oldest continually operating professional sports franchise in the United States.[321] The Braves franchise overall has won eighteenNational League pennants and fourWorld Series championships in three different cities, with their first in 1914 as the Boston Braves, in 1957 as the Milwaukee Braves, and in 1995 and 2021 as the Atlanta Braves.[322] The 1995 title occurred during an unprecedented run of 14 straight divisional championships from 1991 to 2005.[323][324] The team plays atTruist Park, having moved fromTurner Field for the 2017 season. The new stadium is outside the city limits, located 10 miles (16 km) northwest of downtown in the Cumberland/Galleria area of Cobb County.[325]
Professional soccer has been played in some form in Atlanta since 1967. Atlanta's first professional soccer team was theAtlanta Chiefs of the originalNorth American Soccer League which won the 1968 NASL Championship and defeated English first division clubManchester City F.C. twice in international friendlies. In 1998 theAtlanta Silverbacks were formed, playing the newNorth American Soccer League. They now play as an amateur club in theNational Premier Soccer League. In 2017,Atlanta United FC began play as Atlanta's first premier-division professional soccer club since the Chiefs.[330] They wonMLS Cup 2018, defeating thePortland Timbers 2–0. Fan reception has been very positive; the team has broken several single-game and season attendance records for both MLS and theU.S. Open Cup. The club is estimated byForbes to be the most valuable club in Major League Soccer.[331] TheUnited States Soccer Federation moved their headquarters fromChicago to Atlanta in 2023 with the help of Falcons and Atlanta United ownerArthur Blank, with the new training center bearing his name.
Atlanta's 343 parks, nature preserves, and gardens cover 3,622 acres (14.66 km2),[351] which amounts to only 5.6% of the city's total acreage, compared to the national average of just over 10%.[352][353] However, 77% of Atlantans live within a 10-minute walk of a park, a percentage slightly better than the national average of 76%.[354] In its 2023 ParkScore ranking,The Trust for Public Land reported that among the park systems of the 100 most populous U.S. cities, Atlanta's park system received a ranking of 28.[354]Piedmont Park, inMidtown, is Atlanta's most iconic green space.[355][356] The park, which underwent a major renovation and expansion in recent years, attracts visitors from across the region and hosts cultural events throughout the year.Shirley Clarke Franklin Park, a 280-acre green space and reservoir, opened in 2021 and is the city's largest park. Other notable city parks includeCentennial Olympic Park, a legacy of the1996 Summer Olympics that forms the centerpiece of the city's tourist district;Woodruff Park, which anchors the campus ofGeorgia State University;Grant Park, home toZoo Atlanta; andChastain Park, which houses an amphitheater used for live music concerts.[357] TheChattahoochee River National Recreation Area, in the northwestern corner of the city, preserves a 48 mi (77 km) stretch of the river for public recreation opportunities.[358]
TheAtlanta Botanical Garden, adjacent to Piedmont Park, contains formal gardens, including a Japanese garden and a rose garden, woodland areas, and a conservatory that includes indoor exhibits of plants fromtropical rainforests anddeserts. TheBeltLine, a former rail corridor that forms a 22 mi (35 km) loop around Atlanta's core, has been transformed into a series ofparks, connected by a multi-use trail, increasing Atlanta's park space by 40%.[359]
Atlanta offers resources and opportunities for amateur and participatory sports and recreation. Golf and tennis are popular in Atlanta, and the city contains six public golf courses and 182 tennis courts. Facilities along theChattahoochee River cater to watersports enthusiasts, providing the opportunity for kayaking, canoeing, fishing, boating, or tubing. The city's only skate park, a 15,000 square feet (1,400 m2) facility that offers bowls, curbs, and smooth-rolling concrete mounds, is atHistoric Fourth Ward Park.[360]
For a sprawling city with the nation's ninth-largest metro area, Atlanta is surprisingly lush with trees—magnolias,dogwoods,Southern pines, and magnificentoaks.
Atlanta has a reputation as a "city in a forest" due to an abundance of trees that is rare among major cities.[362][363][364] The city'smain street is named after atree, and beyond the Downtown, Midtown, and Buckhead business districts, the skyline gives way to a dense canopy of woods that spreads into the suburbs. The city is home to theAtlanta Dogwood Festival, an annual arts and crafts festival held one weekend during early April, when the nativedogwoods are in bloom. The nickname is factually accurate, as vegetation covers 47.9% of the city as of 2017,[365] the highest among all major American cities, and well above the national average of 27%.[366] Atlanta's tree coverage does not go unnoticed—it was the main reason cited byNational Geographic in naming Atlanta a "Place of a Lifetime".[361][367]
The city's lush tree canopy, which filters out pollutants and cools sidewalks and buildings, has increasingly been under assault from man and nature due to heavy rains, drought, aged forests, new pests, and urban construction. A 2001 study found Atlanta's heavy tree cover declined from 48% in 1974 to 38% in 1996.[368] Community organizations and the city government are addressing the problem. Trees Atlanta, a non-profit organization founded in 1985, has planted and distributed over 113,000shade trees in the city,[369] and Atlanta's government has awarded $130,000 in grants to neighborhood groups to plant trees.[363] Fees are additionally imposed on developers that remove trees on their property per a citywide ordinance, active since 1993.[370]
Atlanta is governed by a mayor and the 15-memberAtlanta City Council. The city council consists of one member from each of the city's 12 districts and three at-large members. The mayor may veto a bill passed by the council, but the council can override the veto with a two-thirds majority.[372] The mayor of Atlanta isAndre Dickens, a Democrat elected on a nonpartisan ballot whose first term in office began on January 3, 2022.[373][374] Every mayor elected since 1973 has been Black.[375] In 2001,Shirley Franklin became the first woman to be elected mayor of Atlanta, and the first African-American woman to serve as mayor of a major Southern city.[376] Atlanta city politics suffered from a notorious reputation for corruption during the 1990s administration of MayorBill Campbell, who was convicted by a federal jury in 2006 on three counts of tax evasion in connection with gambling winnings during trips he took with city contractors.[377]
Historically, Atlanta has been a stronghold for theDemocratic Party. Although municipal elections are officially nonpartisan, nearly all of the city's elected officials are registered Democrats. The city is split among 14 state house districts and four state senate districts, all held by Democrats. At the federal level, Atlanta is split between three congressional districts. Most of the city is in the 5th district, represented by DemocratNikema Williams. Much of southern Atlanta is in the 13th district, represented by DemocratDavid Scott. A small portion in the north is in the 11th district, represented byRepublicanBarry Loudermilk.[382]
The city is served by theAtlanta Police Department (APD), which numbers 2,000 officers[383] and oversaw a 40% decrease in the city's crime rate between 2001 and 2009. In 2012,Forbes ranked Atlanta as the 6th most dangerous American city but by 2023 the city dropped out of its top 10.[384][385] Despite some improvement incrime,street gangs have continued to plague the city since the 1980s.[386][387][388][389] In 2022, there was a 200% increase in gang-related charges in the city.[388] In 2023,Money Inc named Atlanta the third worst gang city in the U.S.[390] Also in 2023, it was estimated that about 1,000 gangs in the Atlanta area were responsible for at least 70% of all crime includingidentity theft,credit card fraud,drug trafficking, andhuman trafficking. TheGeorgia Bureau of Investigation Gang Task Force in partnership with the APD is leading efforts in dismantling gang activity and arresting culprits.[391]
TheAtlanta Fire Rescue Department provides fire protection and first responder emergency medical services to the city from its 35 fire stations. In 2017, AFRD responded to over 100,000 calls for service over a coverage area of 135.7 square miles (351.5 square kilometers). The department also protects Hartsfield–Jackson with five fire stations on the property, serving over 1 million passengers from over 100 countries. The department protects over 3000 high-rise buildings, 23 miles (37 kilometers) of the rapid rail system, and 60 miles (97 kilometers) of interstate highway.[392]
Atlanta in January 2017 declared the city was a "welcoming city" and "will remain open and welcoming to all". Nonetheless, Atlanta does not consider itself to be a "sanctuary city".[396] Atlanta MayorKeisha Lance Bottoms said: "Our city does not supportICE. We don't have a relationship with theU.S. Marshal's Service. We closed our detention center to ICE detainees, and we would not pick up people on an immigration violation."[397]
With more than 15 colleges and universities, including three law schools and two medical schools, Atlanta is considered one of the nation's largest hubs forhigher education. Three universities have earned the highestclassification of "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".[400][401]
TheGeorgia Institute of Technology, commonly referred to as Georgia Tech, is a prominent public research university inMidtown. It offers highly ranked degree programs in engineering, design, industrial management, the sciences, business, and architecture.[402][403]
Georgia State University is a major public research university based inDowntown Atlanta; it is the second largest in student population of the 26 public colleges and universities in theUniversity System of Georgia and is a significant contributor to the revitalization of the city's central business district.[404]
Atlanta is home to nationally renowned private colleges and universities, most notablyEmory University, a leading liberal arts and research institution that operatesEmory Healthcare, the largest health care system in Georgia.[405] The City of Atlanta annexed Emory into its territory effective January 1, 2018.[380]
The University of Georgia'sTerry College of Business operates a satellite campus in Atlanta's Buckhead district, a major financial center in the city.[411] This location facilitates Executive and ProfessionalMBA programs plus executive education offerings. The Buckhead campus also serves as a hub where Terry students, alumni, faculty, and staff can engage with the business community.[412]
The Atlanta Regional Council of Higher Education (ARCHE) is dedicated to strengthening synergy among 19 public and private colleges and universities in the Atlanta region. Participating Atlanta region colleges and universities partner onjoint-degree programs,cross-registration, library services, and cultural events.[413]
In 2018 the City of Atlanta annexed a portion of DeKalb County containing theCenters for Disease Control andEmory University; this portion was to be zoned to theDeKalb County School District until 2024, when it was to transition into APS.[423] In 2017 the number of children living in the annexed territory who attended public schools was nine.[424]
Atlanta is served byThe Atlanta Journal-Constitution, its only major daily newspaper with wide distribution. TheAtlanta Journal-Constitution is the result of a 1950 merger betweenThe Atlanta Journal andThe Atlanta Constitution, with staff consolidation occurring in 1982 and separate publication of the morningConstitution and afternoonJournal ceasing in 2001.[431]Alternative weekly newspapers includeCreative Loafing, which has a weekly print circulation of 80,000.Atlanta Daily World is the oldestBlack newspaper in Atlanta and one of the earliest Black newspapers in American history.[432]Atlanta magazine is a monthly general-interest magazine based in and covering Atlanta.[433]
Atlanta's transportation infrastructure comprises a complex network that includes aheavy railrapid transit system, a light railstreetcar loop, a multi-county bus system,Amtrak service via theCrescent, multiple freight train lines, anInterstate Highway System, several airports, including the world's busiest, and over 45 miles (72 km) of bike paths.[434]
Atlanta has a network of freeways that radiate out from the city, and automobiles are the dominant means of transportation in the region.[435] Three majorinterstate highways converge in Atlanta:I-20 (east-west),I-75 (northwest-southeast), andI-85 (northeast-southwest). The latter two combine in the middle of the city to form theDowntown Connector (I-75/85), which carries more than 340,000 vehicles per day and is one of the most congested segments of interstate highway in the United States.[436] Atlanta is mostly encircled byInterstate 285, abeltway locally known as "the Perimeter" that has come to mark the boundary between "Inside the Perimeter" (ITP), the city and close-in suburbs, and "Outside the Perimeter" (OTP), the outer suburbs and exurbs. The heavy reliance on automobiles for transportation in Atlanta has resulted in traffic, commute, and air pollution rates that rank among the worst in the country.[437][438][439] The City of Atlanta has a higher than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 15.2 percent of Atlanta households lacked a car, and increased slightly to 16.4 percent in 2016. The national average is 8.7 percent in 2016. Atlanta averaged 1.31 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.[440]
TheMetropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) provides public transportation in the form of buses, heavy rail, and a downtown light rail loop.[441] Notwithstanding heavy automotive usage in Atlanta, the city'ssubway system is theeighth busiest in the country.[442] MARTA rail lines connect key destinations, such as the airport, Downtown, Midtown, Buckhead, and Perimeter Center. However, significant destinations, such as Emory University andCumberland, remain unserved. As a result, a 2011Brookings Institution study placed Atlanta 91st of 100 metro areas for transit accessibility.[443]Emory University operates itsCliff shuttle buses with 200,000 boardings per month, while privateminibuses supplyBuford Highway.Amtrak, the national rail passenger system, provides service to Atlanta via theCrescent train (New York–New Orleans), which stops atPeachtree Station. In 2014, theAtlanta Streetcar opened to the public. The streetcar's line, which is also known as the Downtown Loop, runs 2.7 miles (4.3 km) around the downtown tourist areas ofPeachtree Center,Centennial Olympic Park, theMartin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park, and Sweet Auburn.[444] The Atlanta Streetcar line is also being expanded on in the coming years to include a wider range of Atlanta's neighborhoods and important places of interest, with a total of over 50 miles (80 km) of track in the plan.[445]
Cycling is a growing mode of transportation in Atlanta, more than doubling since 2009, when it comprised 1.1% of all commutes (up from 0.3% in 2000).[450][451] Although Atlanta's lack of bike lanes and hilly topography may deter many residents from cycling,[450][452] the city's transportation plan calls for the construction of 226 miles (364 km) of bike lanes by 2020, with the BeltLine helping to achieve this goal.[453] In 2012, Atlanta's first "bike track" was constructed on 10th Street in Midtown. The two lane bike track runs from Monroe Drive west to Charles Allen Drive, with connections to the Beltline and Piedmont Park.[454] Starting in June 2016, Atlanta received a bike sharing program, known asRelay Bike Share, with 100 bikes in Downtown and Midtown, which expanded to 500 bikes at 65 stations as of April 2017.[455][456]
According to the 2016American Community Survey (five-year average), 68.6% of working city of Atlanta residents commuted by driving alone, 7% carpooled, 10% used public transportation, and 4.6% walked. About 2.1% used all other forms of transportation, including taxi, bicycle, and motorcycle. About 7.6% worked at home.[457]
The city has also become one of a handful of "scooter capitals", where companies likeLime[458] andBird[459][460] have gained a major foothold by placing electric scooters on street corners and byways.
^Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020.
^Official records for Atlanta were kept at the Weather Bureau in downtown from October 1878 to August 1928, and at Hartsfield–Jackson Int'l since September 1928.[135]
^Robert, Cochran (May 22, 2012),IDEALS @ Illinois: Governmentality: the new urbanism and the creative class within Atlanta, Georgia, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,hdl:2142/31169
^"Atlanta's Role in the Civil War".americaslibrary.gov. Library of Congress. RetrievedJanuary 12, 2022.Because of its location and commercial importance, Atlanta was used as a center for military operations and as a supply route by the Confederate army during the Civil War. Therefore, it also became a target for the Union army.
^"The Jewish Community of Atlanta".Beit Hatfutsot Open Databases Project. The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot. Archived fromthe original on July 18, 2018. RetrievedJuly 19, 2018.
^"the city that calls itself America's 'Black Mecca'" in "Atlanta Is Less Than Festive on Eve of Another 'Freaknik'",The Washington Post, April 18, 1996
^"Fox Timeline".Fox Theatre. Archived fromthe original on March 14, 2014. RetrievedFebruary 19, 2017.1988:Performance magazine names the Fox Theatre the number one grossing theater in the 3,000–5,000 seat category with the most events, the greatest box office receipts, and the highest attendance in the U.S. and 2009: Billboard magazine names the Fox the No. 1 non-residency theater for the decade with 5,000 seats or less.
^Clary, Jennifer (Summer 2010). "Top 25 Big Cities".AmericanStyle (72).
^"History – MODA". Museum of Design Atlanta. Archived fromthe original on February 2, 2017. RetrievedFebruary 13, 2017.
^Barth, Jack (1991)Roadside Hollywood: The Movie Lover's State-By-State Guide to Film Locations, Celebrity Hangouts, Celluloid Tourist Attractions, and More. Contemporary Books. Page 157.ISBN9780809243266.
^"Interstate 285 Georgia". Interstate-Guide. January 19, 2019. Archived fromthe original on October 23, 2021. RetrievedOctober 23, 2021. The map is on the sidebar which you can click & see the airport wedge.
Atlanta and Environs: A Chronicle of Its People and Events: Years of Change and Challenge, 1940–1976 by Franklin M. Garrett, Harold H. Martin
Craig, Robert (1995).Atlanta Architecture: Art Deco to Modern Classic, 1929–1959. Gretna, LA: Pelican.ISBN0-88289-961-9.
Darlene R. Roth and Andy Ambrose.Metropolitan Frontiers: A Short History of Atlanta. Atlanta: Longstreet Press, 1996. An overview of the city's history with an emphasis on its growth.
Sjoquist, Dave (ed.)The Atlanta Paradox. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. 2000.
Stone, Clarence.Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946–1988. University Press of Kansas. 1989.
Elise Reid Boylston.Atlanta: Its Lore, Legends and Laughter. Doraville: privately printed, 1968. Many anecdotes about the history of the city.
Frederick Allen.Atlanta Rising. Atlanta: Longstreet Press, 1996. A detailed history of Atlanta from 1946 to 1996, with much about City Councilman, later Mayor, William B. Hartsfield's work in making Atlanta a major air transport hub, and about thecivil rights movement as it affected (and was affected by) Atlanta.
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