| Astrology |
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| Background |
| Traditions |
| Branches |
| Astrological signs |
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Some medieval Muslims took a keen interest in the study of astrology, partly because they considered the celestial bodies to be essential, partly because the dwellers of desert-regions often travelled at night, and relied upon knowledge of theconstellations for guidance in their journeys.[1][2]
After the advent ofIslam, theMuslims needed to determine the time of the prayers, the direction of theKaaba, and the correct orientation of themosque, all of which helped give a religious impetus to the study ofastronomy and contributed towards the belief that the heavenly bodies were influential upon terrestrial affairs as well as the human condition.[1] The science dealing with such influences was termedastrology (Arabic: علم النجومIlm an-Nujūm), a discipline contained within the field of astronomy (more broadly known as علم الفلكIlm al-Falak 'the science of formation [of the heavens]').[1] The principles of these studies were rooted inArabian, Persian,Babylonian,Hellenistic andIndian traditions and both were developed by the Arabs following their establishment of a magnificent observatory and library of astronomical and astrological texts atBaghdad in the 8th century.
Throughout the medieval period the practical application of astrology was subject to deep philosophical debate by Muslimreligious scholars and scientists. Astrological prognostications nevertheless required a fair amount of exact scientific expertise and the quest for such knowledge within this era helped to provide the incentive for the study and development of astronomy.
Medieval Islamic astrology and astronomy continued Hellenistic and Roman era traditions based onPtolemy'sAlmagest. Centres of learning in medicine and astronomy/astrology were set up in Baghdad and Damascus, and the CaliphAl-Mansur of Baghdad established a major observatory and library in the city, making it the world's astronomical centre. During this time knowledge of astronomy was greatly increased, causing manyArabic names to become standard in modern astronomy.
Albumasur or Abu Ma'shar (805 - 885) was one of the most influential Islamic astrologers. His treatiseIntroductorium in Astronomiam (Kitab al-Mudkhal al-Kabīr) spoke of how '"only by observing the great diversity of planetary motions can we comprehend the unnumbered varieties of change in this world".[3] TheIntroductorium was one of the first books to find its way in translation through Spain and into Europe in the Middle Ages, and was highly influential in the revival of astrology and astronomy there.
Persians also combined the disciplines of medicine and astrology by linking the curative properties of herbs with specific zodiac signs and planets.[4] Mars, for instance, was considered hot and dry and so ruled plants with a hot or pungent taste, likehellebore,tobacco ormustard. These beliefs were adopted by Europeanherbalists likeCulpeper right up until the development of modern medicine.
The Persians also developed a system, by which the difference between the ascendant and each planet of the zodiac was calculated. This new position then became a 'part' of some kind.[4] For example, the 'part of fortune' is found by taking the difference between the Sun and the ascendant and adding it to the Moon. If the 'part' thus calculated was in the 10th House in Libra, for instance, it suggested that money could be made from some kind of partnership.
The calendar introduced byOmar Khayyam, based on the classical zodiac, remains in effect inAfghanistan andIran as the officialSolar Hijri calendar.
Another notable Persian astrologer and astronomer wasQutb al-Din al Shirazi born in Iran, Shiraz (1236–1311). He wrote critiques of Ptolemy'sAlmagest and produced two prominent works on astronomy: 'The Limit of Accomplishment Concerning Knowledge of the Heavens' in 1281 and 'The Royal Present' in 1284, both of which commented upon and improved on Ptolemy's work, particularly in the field of planetary motion.
Ulugh Beyg was a fifteenth-centuryTimurid Sultan and also a mathematician and astronomer. He built an observatory in 1428 and produced the first original star map since Ptolemy, which corrected the position of many stars and included many new ones.[citation needed]
Some of the principles of astrology were refuted by several Astronomy in themedieval Islamic astronomers such asAl-Farabi (Alpharabius),Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen),Avicenna,Abu Rayhan al-Biruni andAverroes. Their reasons for refuting astrology were often due to both scientific (the methods used by astrologers beingconjectural rather thanempirical) and religious (conflicts with orthodoxIslamic scholars) reasons.[5] However these refutations mainly concerned thejudicial branches of astrology rather than the natural principles of it. For example, Avicenna's refutation of astrology (in the treatise titledResāla fī ebṭāl aḥkām al-nojūm, Treatise against the rulings of the stars) revealed support for its overarching principles. He stated that it was true that each planet had some influence on the earth, but his argument was the difficulty of astrologers being able to determine the exact effect of it. In essence, Avicenna did not refute astrology, but denied man's limited capacity to be able to know the precise effects of the stars on the sublunar matter. With that, he did not refute the essential dogma of astrology, but only refuted our ability to fully understand it.[6]
Another Damasceneproto-SalafistIbn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350), in hisMiftah Dar al-Sa'adah, usedempirical arguments against astrology in order to refute its practice as he thought it is closely aligned todivination.[7] He recognized that thestars are much larger than theplanets, and thus argued:[8]
And if you astrologers answer that it is precisely because of this distance and smallness that their influences are negligible, then why is it that you claim a great influence for the smallest heavenly body, Mercury? Why is it that you have given an influence to al-Ra's and al-Dhanab, which are two imaginary points [ascending and descending nodes]?
Ibn Qayyim also argued that the since theMilky Way as "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars" that "it is certainly impossible to have knowledge of their influences."[8]
