Assyria ܐܬܘܪ (Classical Syriac) Āṯōr
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TheAssyrian Triangle was theproposed borders for an autonomous Assyrian state followingWorld War I.[1]
Main languages	Neo-Aramaic Mesopotamian Arabic Turkish Kurdish Persian
Today part of	Iraq (Mesopotamia) Iran (margin in western Urmia Plain and Salmas area) Syria (Mesopotamia) Turkey (Mesopotamia)

TheAssyrian homeland orAssyria (Classical Syriac:ܐܬܘܪ,romanized: Āṯōr orClassical Syriac:ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ,romanized: Bêṯ Nahrin) is the homeland of theAssyrian people within whichAssyrian civilisation developed, located in theUpper Mesopotamia ofWest Asia. The territory that forms the Assyrian homeland is, similarly to the rest ofMesopotamia, currently divided between present-dayIraq,Turkey,Iran andSyria.^[2] In Iran, theUrmia Plain forms a thin margin of the ancestral Assyrian homeland in the north-west, and the only section of the Assyrian homeland beyond the Mesopotamian region. The majority of Assyrians in Iran currently reside in the capital city,Tehran.^[3]

TheAssyrians are indigenous Mesopotamians, descended from theAkkadians,Sumerians andHurrians^[4][5][6] who developed independent civilisation in the city ofAssur on the eastern border of northern Mesopotamia. The territory that would encompass the Assyrian homeland was divided through the centre by theTigris River, with their indigenous Mesopotamia on the west and western margins of the Urmia Plains, which they occupied in 2000 BCE prior to the arrival of the modern Iranians, to the east. In modern times, Assyrians largely only recognise Assyrian towns and cities immediately neighbouring the Tigris to the east as their indigenous territory, in addition to Mesopotamia,^[7][8] with the homeland only expanding beyond the borders due to the major centres of Assyrian civilisation, such as the cities ofNineveh,Assur andNimrud, being built on the banks of the Tigris itself.

Modern Assyrians are predominantly Christian, mostly adhering to theEast andWest Syriac liturgical rites ofChristianity.^[9] They speakNeo-Aramaic languages, most common beingSuret andTuroyo.^[10]

The city ofAššur andNineveh (modern-dayMosul), which was the oldest and largest city of the ancient Assyrian empire,^[11] together with a number of other Assyrian cities, seem to have been established by 2,600 BC. However it is likely that they were initially Sumerian-dominated administrative centres. In the late 26th century BC,Eannatum ofLagash, then the dominantSumerian ruler inMesopotamia, mentions "smitingSubartu" (Subartu being the Sumerian name for Assyria). Similarly, inc. the early 25th century BC,Lugal-Anne-Mundu the king of the Sumerian state ofAdab lists Subartu as paying tribute to him.^[12]

Assyrians are easternAramaic-speaking, descending from pre-Islamic inhabitants ofUpper Mesopotamia. TheOld Aramaic language was adopted by the population of theNeo-Assyrian Empire from around the 8th century BC, and these eastern dialects remained in wide use throughout Upper Mesopotamia during thePersian andRoman periods, and survived through to the present day. TheSyriac language evolved inAchaemenid Assyria during the 5th century BC.^[13][14]

During the Assyrian periodDuhok was named Nohadra (and alsoBit Nuhadra' orNaarda), where, during theParthian-Sassanid rule in Assyria (c.160 BC to 250 AD) asBeth Nuhadra, gained semi-independence as one of a patchwork of Neo-Assyrian kingdoms in Assyria, which also includedAdiabene,Osroene,Assur andBeth Garmai.^[15][16]

Syriac Christianity took hold amongst the Assyrians between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD with the founding in Assyria of theChurch of the East together withSyriac literature.^[17]

The first division betweenSyriac Christians occurred in the 5th century, when Upper Mesopotamian based Assyrian Christians of theSassanid Persian Empire were separated from those inThe Levant over theNestorian Schism. This split owed just as much to the politics of the day as it did to theological orthodoxy.Ctesiphon, which was at the time the Sassanid capital, eventually became the capital of theChurch of the East. During the Christian era Nuhadra became aneparchy within theAssyrian Church of the Eastmetropolitanate of Ḥadyab (Erbil).^[18]

After theCouncil of Chalcedon in 451, many Syriac Christians within theRoman Empire rebelled against its decisions. The Patriarchate of Antioch was then divided between a Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian communion. The Chalcedonians were often labelled 'Melkites' (Emperor's Party), while their opponents were labelled asMonophysites (those who believe in the one rather than two natures of Christ) andJacobites (afterJacob Baradaeus). TheMaronite Church found itself caught between the two, but claims to have always remained faithful to theCatholic Church and in communion with thebishop ofRome, thePope.^[19]

Both Syriac Christianity and the Eastern Aramaic language came under pressure following theArabIslamic conquest of Mesopotamia in the 7th century, and Assyrian Christians throughout the Middle Ages were subjected toArabizingsuperstrate influence. The Assyrians suffered a significant persecution with the religiously motivated large scale massacres conducted by the MuslimTurco-Mongol rulerTamurlane in the 14th century AD. It was from this time that the ancient city ofAssur was abandoned by Assyrians, and Assyrians were reduced to a minority within their ancient homeland.^[20][21]

Upper Mesopotamia had an established structure of dioceses by AD 500 following the introduction of Christianity from the 1st to 3rd centuries AD.^[22] After the fall of theNeo-Assyrian Empire by 605 BC Assyria remained an entity for over 1200 years under Babylonian, Achamaenid Persian, Seleucid Greek, Parthian, Roman and Sassanid Persian rule. It was only after the Arab-Islamic conquest of the second half of the 7th century AD that Assyria as a named region was dissolved.

The mountainous region of the Assyrian homeland,Barwari, which was part of thediocese of Beth Nuhadra (current dayDohuk), saw a mass migration of Nestorians after thefall of Baghdad in 1258 andTimurlane's invasion from central Iraq.^[23] Its Christian inhabitants were little affected by the Ottoman conquests, however starting from the 19th centuryKurdishEmirs sought to expand their territories at their expense. In the 1830s Muhammad Rawanduzi, the Emir ofSoran, tried to forcibly add the region to his dominion pillaging many Assyrian villages.Bedr Khan Beg ofBohtan renewed attacks on the region in the 1840s, killing tens of thousands of Assyrians in Barwari andHakkari before being ultimately defeated by theOttomans.^[24]

In 1552, aschism occurred within theChurch of the East: the established "Eliya line" of patriarchs was opposed by a rival patriarch,Sulaqa, who initiated what is called the "Shimun line". He and his early successors entered into communion with theCatholic Church, but in the course of over a century their link with Rome grew weak and was openly renounced in 1672, whenShimun XIII Dinkha adopted a profession of faith that contradicted that of Rome, while he maintained his independence from the "Eliya line". Leadership of those who wished to be in communion with Rome passed to the Archbishop of AmidJoseph I, recognized first by the Turkish civil authorities (1677) and then by Rome itself (1681).^{[25][26][27][28]}

A century and a half later, in 1830, headship of the Catholics was conferred onYohannan Hormizd. Yohannan was a member of the "Eliya line" family, but he opposed the last of that line to be elected in the normal way as patriarch, Ishoʿyahb (1778–1804), most of whose followers he won over to communion with Rome, after he himself was irregularly elected in 1780, as Sulaqa was in 1552. The "Shimun line" that in 1553 entered communion with Rome and broke it off in 1672 is now that of the church that in 1976 officially adopted the name "Assyrian Church of the East",^{[29][30][31][32]} while a member of the "Eliya line" family is one of the patriarchs of theChaldean Catholic Church.

For many centuries, from at least the time ofJerome (c. 347 – 420),^[33] the term "Chaldean" indicated theAramaic language and was still the normal name in the nineteenth century.^[34][35][36] Only in 1445 did it begin to be used to mean Aramaic speakers incommunion with theCatholic Church, on the basis of a decree of theCouncil of Florence,^[37] which accepted the profession of faith that Timothy,metropolitan of the Aramaic speakers inCyprus, made in Aramaic, and which decreed that "nobody shall in future dare to call [...] Chaldeans, Nestorians".^[38][39][40]

Previously, when there were as yet no Catholic Aramaic speakers of Mesopotamian origin, the term "Chaldean" was applied with explicit reference to their "Nestorian" religion. Thus Jacques de Vitry wrote of them in 1220/1 that "they denied that Mary was the Mother of God and claimed that Christ existed in two persons. They consecrated leavened bread and used the 'Chaldean' (Syriac) language".^[41] Until the second half of the 19th century the term "Chaldean" continued in general use for East Syriac Christians, whether "Nestorian" or Catholic:^{[42][43][44][45]} it was the West Syriacs who were reported as claiming descent fromAsshur, the second son ofShem.^[46]

Peutinger's map of theinhabited world known to theRoman geographers depictsSingara as located west of theTrogoditi. Persi. (Latin:Troglodytae Persiae, "Persiantroglodytes") who inhabited the territory aroundMount Sinjar. By the medieval Arabs, most of the plain was reckoned as part of the province ofDiyār Rabīʿa, the "abode of theRabīʿa"tribe. The plain was the site of the determination of thedegree byal-Khwārizmī and otherastronomers during the reign of thecaliphal-Mamun.^[47]Sinjar boasted a famousAssyrian cathedral in the 8th century.^[48]

Syria and Upper Mesopotamia became part of theOttoman Empire in the 16th century, following the conquests ofSuleiman the Magnificent.^[49]

During World War I the Assyrians suffered theAssyrian genocide which reduced their numbers by up to two thirds. Subsequent to this, they entered the war on the side of the British and Russians. After World War I, the Assyrian homeland was divided between theBritish Mandate of Mesopotamia, which would become theKingdom of Iraq in 1932, and theFrench Mandate of Syria which would become theSyrian Arab Republic in 1944.^{[50][51][52][53]}

Assyrians faced reprisals under theHashemite monarchy for co-operating with the British during the years after World War I, and many fled to the West. The PatriarchShimun XXI Eshai, though born into the line of Patriarchs at Qochanis, was educated in Britain. For a time he sought a homeland for the Assyrians in Iraq but was forced to take refuge inCyprus in 1933, later moving to Chicago, Illinois, and finally settling near San Francisco, California.^[54]

TheChaldean Christian community was less numerous^{[citation needed]} and vociferous at the time of the British Mandate of Mesopotamia, and did not play a major role in the British rule of the country. However, with the exodus ofAssyrian Church of the East members, the Chaldean Catholic Church became the largest non-Muslim religious denomination in Iraq, and some Assyrian Catholics later rose to power in the Ba'ath Party government, the most prominent being Deputy Prime MinisterTariq Aziz. The Assyrians of Dohuk boast one of the largest churches in the region named the Mar Marsi Cathedral, and is the center of an Eparchy. Tens of thousands ofYazidi and Assyrian Christian refugees live in the city as well due to theISIS invasion of Iraq in 2014 and the subsequentFall of Mosul^[55]

In addition to the Assyrian population, anAramaic speaking Jewish population existed in the region for thousands of years, living mainly inBarwari,Zakho andAlqosh. However, all of the BarwariJews either left or were exiled toIsrael shortly after its independence in 1947. The region was heavily affected by theKurdish uprisings during the 1950s and 60s and was largely depopulated during theAl-Anfal campaign in the 1980s, although some of its population later returned and their homes were subsequently rebuilt.^[56]Assur, which is in theSaladin Governorate, was put onUNESCO's List ofWorld Heritage in danger in 2003, at which time the site was threatened by a looming large-scale dam project that would have submerged the ancient archaeological site.^[57]

Following the concerted attacks on Assyrian Christians in Iraq, especially highlighted by the Sunday, August 1, 2004, simultaneous bombing of six Churches (Baghdad and Mosul) and subsequent bombing of nearly thirty other churches throughout the country, Assyrian leadership, internally and externally, began to regard the Nineveh Plain as the location where security for Christians may be possible. Schools especially received much attention in this area and in Kurdish areas where Assyrian concentrated population lives. In addition, agriculture and medical clinics received financial help from theAssyrian diaspora.^[58]

As attacks on Christians increased inBasra,Baghdad,Ramadi and smaller towns more families turned northward to the extended family holdings in the Nineveh Plain. This place of refuge remains underfunded and gravely lacking in infrastructure to aid the ever-increasing internally displaced people population. From 2012, it also began receiving influxes of Assyrians fromSyria owing to thecivil war there.^[59][60]

In August 2014 nearly all of the non-Sunni inhabitants of the southern regions of the Plains, which includeTel Keppe,Bakhdida,Bartella andKaramlesh were driven out by theIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant during the2014 Northern Iraq offensive.^[61][62] Upon entering the town, ISIS looted the homes, and removed the crosses and other religious objects from the churches. The Christian cemetery in the town was also later destroyed.^[63] AssyrianBronze Age andIron Age monuments and archaeological sites, as well as numerous Assyrian churches and monasteries have been systematically vandalized and destroyed by ISIL. These include the ruins ofNineveh,Kalhu (Nimrud,Assur,Dur-Sharrukin andHatra).^[64][65] ISIL destroyed a 3,000 year-old Ziggurat. ISIL destroyed Virgin Mary Church, in 2015 St. Markourkas Church was destroyed and the cemetery was bulldozed.^[66]

Soon after the beginning of theBattle of Mosul Iraqi troops advanced on Tel Keppe, but the fighting continued into 2017.^[67][68] Iraqi forces recaptured the town from ISIS on 19 January 2017.^[58]

Owing to its latitude and altitude, the Assyrian homeland is cooler and much wetter than most of Iraq. Most areas in the region fall within theMediterranean climate zone (Csa), with areas to the southwest beingsemi-arid (BSh).^[69]

Assyrian populations are distributed between the Assyrian homeland and theAssyrian diaspora. There are no official statistics, and estimates vary greatly, between less than one million in the Assyrian homeland,^[2] and 3.3 million with the diaspora included,^[72] mostly due to the uncertainty of the number of Assyrians inIraq andSyria. Since the 2003Iraq War, Iraqi Assyrians have been displaced intoSyria in significant but unknown numbers. Since theSyrian Civil War began in 2011,Syrian Assyrians have been displaced intoTurkey in significant but unknown numbers. The indigenous Assyrian homeland areas are "part of today's northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran and northeastern Syria".^[73]

The Assyrian communities that are still left in the Assyrian homeland are inSyria (400,000),^[74]Iraq (300,000),^[75]Iran (20,000),^[76][77] andTurkey (15,000–25,100).^[76][78] Most of the Assyrians living inSyria today, in theAl Hasakah Governorate in villages along theKhabur river, descend from refugees that arrived there after theAssyrian genocide andSimele massacre of the 1910s and 30s. Christian communities ofOriental Orthodox Syriacs lived inTur Abdin, an area in Southeastern Turkey,Nestorian Assyrians lived in theHakkari Mountains, which straddles the border of northern Iraq and Southern Turkey, as well as theUrmia Plain, an area located on the western bank ofLake Urmia, andChaldean andSyriac Catholics lived in theNineveh Plains, an area located in Northern Iraq.^[79]

More than half ofIraqi Christians have fled to neighboring countries since the start of theIraq War, and many have not returned, although a number are migrating back to the traditional Assyrian homeland in the Kurdish Autonomous region.^[80] Most Assyrians nowadays live in northern Iraq, with the community inNorthern (Turkish) Hakkari being completely decimated, and the ones in Tur Abdin and Urmia Plain are largely depopulated.^[81]

The Assyrian-inhabited towns and villages on the Nineveh Plain form a concentration of those belonging to Syriac Christian traditions, and since this area is the ancient home of the Assyrian empire through which the Assyrian people trace their cultural heritage, the Nineveh Plain is the area on which an effort to form anautonomous Assyrian entity has become concentrated. There have been calls by some politicians inside and outside Iraq to create an autonomous region for Assyrian Christians in this area.^[82][83]

In theTransitional Administrative Law adopted in March 2004 in Baghdad, not only were provisions made for the preservation of Assyrian culture through education and media, but a provision for an administrative unit also was accepted. Article 125 in Iraq's Constitution states that:"This Constitution shall guarantee the administrative, political, cultural, and educational rights of the various nationalities, such as Turkomen, Chaldeans, Assyrians, and all other constituents, and this shall be regulated by law."^[84][85]

On January 21, 2014, the Iraqi government had declared that Nineveh Plains would become a new province, which would serve as a safe haven for Assyrians.^[86] After the liberation of the Nineveh Plain from ISIL between 2016/17, all Assyrian political parties called on theEuropean Union andUN Security Council for the creation of an Assyrian self-administered province in the Nineveh Plain.^[87]

Between the 28th-30 June 2017, a conference was held inBrussels dubbed,The Future for Christians in Iraq.^[88] The conference was organised by theEuropean People's Party and had participants extending from Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriac organizations, including representatives from the Iraqi government and theKRG. The conference was boycotted by theAssyrian Democratic Movement,Sons of Mesopotamia,Assyrian Patriotic Party,Chaldean Catholic Church andAssyrian Church of the East. A position paper was signed by the remaining political organizations involved.^[89]

• Assur
• Nineveh Plains
• Beth Nahrain
• Hakkari
• List of Assyrian settlements
• Persian Assyria
• Tur Abdin
• Asōristān
• Kurdistan

• Nineveh, Assyria (Bet-Nahren)
• The League of Nations and the Quest for an Assyrian Homeland

• Regions of Iraq
• Geography of the Middle East
• Cultural regions
• Mesopotamia
• Geography of Iraq
• Geography of Turkey
• Geography of Syria
• Geography of Iran
• Historical regions
• Levant
• Eastern Mediterranean
• Assyrian irredentism

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