Aššur,[a] also known asAshur andQal'at Sherqat, was the capital of theMiddle Assyrian Empire for a time, of theNeo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) and a semi-independent state during the Parthian Empire between the 2nd century BC and mid 3rd century AD. The remains of the city lie on the western bank of theTigris River, north of the confluence with its tributary, theLittle Zab, in what is nowIraq, more precisely in theal-Shirqat District of theSaladin Governorate. Assur lies 65 kilometres (40 mi) south of the site ofKalhu (the biblicalCalah,Nimrud) and 100 km (60 mi) south ofNineveh.
Occupation of the city itself continued for approximately 3,000 years,[2] from theEarly Dynastic Period to the mid-3rd century AD, when the city was sacked by theSasanian Empire, after which it was sparsely populated until the massacres ofAssyrian Christians conducted byTamurlane in the 14th century AD after which the remaining population relocated to the countryside. The site is aWorld Heritage Site and was added to that organization's list ofsites in danger in 2003 as a result of a proposed dam, which would flood some of the site.
The city lies on a south facing mountain spur with a triangular layout. The northern, higher, area heldpublic buildings including the palace and temples ofAshur,Anu,Adad,Sin,Shamash, andIštar.[3]
Assur was briefly excavated (as Kala shergat) by A.H. Layard and H. Rassam, in the 1800s while working at Nineveh. Rassam worked there in the 1850s and 1870s, though rarely present in person.[4] Regular exploration of the site of Assur began in 1898 by German archaeologists. Excavations began in 1900 byFriedrich Delitzsch, and were continued in 1903–1914 by a team from theDeutsche Orient-Gesellschaft led initially byRobert Koldewey and later byWalter Andrae. Working 12 months a year, mainly in the northern public area, they excavated the Anu, Adad, Sin, Shamash, Ištar, Nabu, and Assur temples along with the Assur/Enlilziggurat and the Old Palace. Additionally, the city's double city was also cleared.[5][6][7][8][9] More than 16,000clay tablets withcuneiform texts were discovered and are held at thePergamon Museum inBerlin. Several thousand shell, stone, glass and ceramic beadswere encountered at a deep level with two of the beads being much later determined to beBaltic amber. About 700 worked and unworked bone and ivory objects also found.[10] These excavations were thinly published at the time due to the outbreak of WWI and later efforts have been made to correct that.[11][12][13][14][15][16]
Because of the large construction overburden from later periods a full stratigraphy was only possibleat the site of the Istar temple in the Nabu district. Eight primary construction/occupation levelswere determined for the Istar temple (A-H). The most recent layers (A-C), called "later temples", began with theoldest built byTukulti-Ninurta I (1243-1207). The oldest levels (D-H) began with the earliest in theEarly Dynastic period. The excavator believed that there was an occupational hiatus in level F duringwhich no temple existed.[17]
Iraqi archaeologists worked at Assur intermittently after 1979, primarily doing restoration workand room clearing but some excavation activity continued. Parthian graves were excavated and an octagonalprism of Tiglath-pileser, and 52 Neo-Assyrian period tablets were found.[18][19][20]
More recently, Assur was excavated by B. Hrouda forLMU Munich and the Bavarian Ministry of Culture in 1990. The team worked in the west-central part of the site about 120 meters south of the Nabu Temple.[21][22][23] During the same period, in 1988 and 1989, the site was being worked by R. Dittmann on behalf of theDeutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.[24][25] In 2000–2001 the site was excavated by Peter A. Miglus.[26][27]
Excavation at the site resumed in 2023 by the Assur Excavation Project led by Professor Karen Radner and a team of Iraqi and European colleagues. Work continued in2024.[28][29][30] In 2023, after a drone survey, a caesium total field magnetometer survey of the mostly Parthian New Town area of Assur on the east side of the city. Data froma small, 2 hectare, magnetometry survey done in the central area of Assur was merged in. Atrial electrical resistivity tomography test was conducted and also eight core samples were taken.[31]
In 2024 Iraqi and European archaeologists took four core samples in the deepest layers below the foundation of the Ishtar temple showing that it was built on a thick layer of pure sand, standard practice in Southern Mesopotamia but rare in later temples built at Assur. They retrieved one charcoal sample at the earliest point which was found to have a radiocarbon date of 2896-2702 BC (calibration method used IntCal20). The early excavators had dated the founding of theIstar temple to early in the 3rd millennium BC but later work had revised that to the Early Dynastic III period (2600–2350 BC).[32]
While there are no textual references to Assur in the Early Dynastic perioda number of Early Dynastic III finds were made in the early excavations at theIštar templeincluding a number of seated and standing female statues.[17]. More recent work at the Ištar Temple, including a radiocarbon date, suggests a foundation for the city by the Early Dynastic I period.[32]
During theThird Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112-2004 BC), Assur was under the control ofUr. Oneof the governors of Assur,Zariqum, is known. From references in texts foundatDrehem andUmma it is known that he was originally an Ur III official fromShulgi year 44 until year 47 (about 3.5 years) then from Shulgi year 48 untilAmar-Sin year 5 (about 6 years) was governor of Assur. He then became governor ofSusa from Amar-Sin year 5 untilShu-Sin year 4 (about 8 years). It is thought that at thattime Assur and Susa were under the control of a single governor. An inscription wasfound in the Istar temple at Assur where Zariqum recorded building a temple for Bēlat-ekallim (Ninegal), for the life of Amar-Sin.[33][34][35][36]
Around the end of the 21st century BC theUr III Empire collapsed at the hands of theElamitesand the control of Assur shifted briefly toEshnunna. A duck weight found at Assurread "Dāduša, son of Ipiq-Adad, king of Ešnunna, to Inibšina, his daughter, he presented (this duck weight).".[37]
In this period Assur was a central hub the "karum" tradingnetwork which stretched through Mesopotamia, Syria, and Anatolia.Kanesh was another importantlocation in this system. The city was ruled at this time by a city assembly which wieldedlegislative and judicial power. A limum was a city official appointed yearly tohead city finances. Transactions were dated by their names inLimmu (eponyms). andexample is "month: “Bēlat-ekallim”; eponym: “Qīš-Amurrim, son of Apapa.son of Apapa.”".Excavations found several hundred Old Assyrian period inscriptions on tablets and bricks, many fragmentary.[38][39][40][41] A fewcylinder seals from this period were found at Assur (one of a ruler, Irishum I), though only from their clay sealings.[42] Local rulers rarely and lightly affected Assur, mostly on matters of wide trading interest. An example would be Ilusumma where a text of his (BM 115690 found in the Istar temple at Assur) reads:
"The andurārum (debt relief) of the Akkadians and their children I established. I purified their copper. I established their andurārum from the border of the marshes(?) andUr andNippur,Awal, and Kismar,Der of the godIshtaran, as far as Assur."[43][44]
Shamshi-Adad I's (1808–1775 BC), Amorite ruler of the Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia, eventually conquered Assur and made it his religious capital (his primary capital beingEkallatum and laterShubat-Enlil). In this era, the Great Royal Palace was built, and the temple of Assur was expanded and enlarged with aziggurat. However, this empire met its end whenHammurabi, theAmorite king ofBabylon conquered and incorporated the city into theFirst Babylonian dynasty empire following the death ofIshme-Dagan I around 1756 BC, while the next three Assyrian kings were viewed as vassals of Babylon.[45]
One local ruler early in this period,Puzur-Ashur III, is known from inscriptions. Temples to the moon godSin (Nanna) and the sun godShamash were built and dedicated through the 15th century BC. The city was subsequently subjugated by the king ofMitanni,Shaushtatar in the late 15th century, taking the gold and silver doors of the temple to his capital,Washukanni, as spoils.[45]
After the Mitanni Empire was destroyed by theHittitesAshur-uballit I annexed theeastern portions of that empire forming theMiddle Assyrian Empire (1353-1056 BC). The following centuries witnessed the restoration of the old temples and palaces of Assur, and the city once more became the throne of an empire from 1365 BC to 1050 BC.Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–1208 BC) also constructed a new temple to the goddessIštar in the location of the original temple. TheAnu-Adad temple was established later during the reign ofTiglath-Pileser I (1115–1075 BC). The walled area of the city in the Middle Assyrian period made up some 1.2 square kilometres (300 acres).
An unfinished basalt statue of Shalmaneser III. From Assur, Iraq. 858–824 BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, IstanbulA statue of the god Kidudu, guardian spirit of the wall of the city of Ashur. Circa 835 BC. From Ashur, Iraq. The British Museum, LondonA map ofAssyriaA relief ofAshurnasirpal II, with an official
In theNeo-Assyrian Empire (912–605 BC) the royal residence was transferred to other Assyrian cities.Ashur-nasir-pal II (884–859 BC) moved the capital from Assur toKalhu (Calah/Nimrud). With the reign ofSargon II (722–705 BC), a new capital began to rise:Dur-Sharrukin (Fortress ofSargon). He died in battle and his son and successorSennacherib (705–682 BC) abandoned the city, choosing to magnifyNineveh as his royal capital. The city of Assur remained the religious center of the empire due to its temple of the national godAshur.[46]
In the reign ofSennacherib (705–682 BC), the House of the New Year,Akitu, was built, and the festivities celebrated in the city. Many of the kings were also buried beneath the Old Palace while some queens were buried in the other capitals such as the wife of Sargon,Ataliya. The city was sacked and largely destroyed during the decisivebattle of Assur, a major confrontation between theAssyrian andMedian andBabylonian armies.[46][47]
After the Babylonians and Medes were overthrown by thePersians as the dominant force in ancient Mesopotamia and Iran, Assyria was ruled by thePersianAchaemenid Empire (asAthura) from 549 BC to 330 BC (seeAchaemenid Assyria). The Athura had been responsible for gold and glazing works of the palace and for providing Lebanese cedar timber, respectively. The city and region of Ashur had once more gained a degree of militaristic and economic strength. A revolt by the Assyrians took place in 520 BC but ultimately failed. Assyria seems to have recovered dramatically and flourished during this period. It became a major agricultural and administrative center of the Achaemenid Empire, and its soldiers were a mainstay of the Persian Army.[45]
The city revived during theParthian Empire period, particularly between 150 BC and 270 AD, its population expanding and it becoming an administrative centre of Parthian-ruledAssuristan. AssyriologistsSimo Parpola andPatricia Crone suggest Assur may have had outright independence in this period alongside other Assyrian polities such asAdiabene,Osroene,Beth Nuhadra andBeth Garmai. New administrative buildings were erected to the north of the old city, and a palace to the south. The old temple dedicated to the national god of the Assyrians Assur (Ashur) was rebuilt, as were temples to other Assyrian gods.
Eastern Aramaic inscriptions from the remains of Assur have yielded insight into the Parthian-era city with Assyria having its own Mesopotamian AramaicSyriac script, which was the same in terms of grammar and syntax as that found at the Assyrian city ofEdessa and elsewhere in the states ofOsroene,Adiabene,Hatra andNuhadra (modernDohuk).
German semiticist Klaus Beyer (1929-2014) published over 600 inscriptions from Mesopotamian towns and cities including Assur,Dura-Europos,Hatra, Gaddala,Tikrit andTur Abdin.[48]
The Roman historianFestus wrote in about 370 that in AD 116Trajan formed from his conquests east of theEuphrates the new Roman provinces of Mesopotamia andAssyria. The existence of the latter Roman province is questioned by C.S. Lightfoot and F. Miller.[49][50] In any case, just two years after the province's supposed creation, Trajan's successorHadrian restored Trajan's eastern conquests to the Parthians, preferring to live with him in peace and friendship.[51]
The site was put onUNESCO'sList of World Heritage in Danger in 2003, at which time the site was threatened by a looming large-scale dam project that would have submerged the ancient archaeological site.[52][53] The dam project was put on hold shortly after the2003 invasion of Iraq. The Makhoul Dam project has recently been revived.[54]
The territory around the ancient site was occupied by theIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in 2015. Since ISIL haddestroyed a number of ancient historical sites, including the cities ofHatra,Khorsabad, andNimrud, fears rose that Assur would be destroyed too. According to some sources, the citadel of Assur was destroyed or badly damaged in May 2015 by members of ISIL usingimprovised explosive devices.[55] AnAP report from December 2016 after the Iraqi forces had retaken the area, said that the militants tried to destroy the city's grand entrance arches, but they remained standing and a local historian described the damage as "minor".[56]
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